SB 110 ~ ; 

.C2 ^ 




...1902... 



Soil Culture 

Manual. 



Price, 40 cents. 



CAMPBELL'S 
1902 

Soil Culture Manual 



Explains how the Rain Waters are Stored 
and Conserved in the Soil; how Moisture 
Moves in the Soil by Capillary Attraction, 
Percolation and Evaporation, and how these 
conditions may be regulated by cultivation. 

Copyright 1902 by H. w. Campbell. 




• • • 




H. W. CAMPBELL. 
Author and Publisher, 
Holdrege, Nebraska. 
V. S. A. 




THE LIBRARY OF 

GONG«ESS, 
Two Co^ee Receive© 



FEB. 17 1902 




C©fV?WiHT EHTRV 




West-Land Glory and Greeting. 



In its new-born days — years long since gone by — 

Before the people of our land 

Had learned to grapple with strong hand 

Soil culture problems; hearts were sore, 

And poverty hung 'round the door. 

But times have changed! And nevermore 

From west throughout, will hear the cry 

Of woe or want. Plain the reason why! 

The east came west, in years gone by, 
With glad refrain the w^est-world rings. 
Each year's returns rich profit brings. 
And woe long time ago took wings. 
Our west-land bloometh as the rose, 
Our happy youth-folk, best that grows! 
Prosperity hath come — that's why 
The west-land doth the world defy. 



Nellie Hawks. 




Yours for better Crops and better Homes, 
H. W. Campbell. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Having been convinced by years of constant labor in the field, and 
practical results attained by soil culture experiments, that the average 
farm crops throughout the west are not what they might be if proper cul- 
tivation was applied; and realizing what it would signify to the grfeat 
Semi-Arid Belt if every farmer in that section could grasp the funda- 
mental principles involved in the science of soil culture, which are really 
plain and simple, and put them into practical use, I have been prompted 
to prepare the matter contained in these pages. 

I desire, if it may be possible for me to do so, to in some measure 
supply the rapidly growing demand for a broader and more comprehensive 
knowledge of soil culture and the storage and conservation of the avail- 
able soil waters for the increase of crops, and the greater profit thereby to 
the farmer; also to aid and encourage public sentiment in favor of farm 
life and ideal farm homes. 

I believe one of the important sentiments as respects home life on 
the farm is the abolishment of the " Bonanza " farm idea. The small 
farmer has given character to agriculture everywhere and at all times. 
He cultivates a smaller area, produces a greater diversity of crops and 
practices a more intensive system of cultivation. His farm is his home, 
which he wishes constantly to improve by the growing of trees, fruit, flow- 
ers and shrubs. He has a better conception of economy; his wife and 
children are happier and better contented; in short, it is upon the com- 
paratively small farms that many a bright young man and woman have 
found opportunities to develop a capacity for the higher and nobler duties 
and service of life. 

Make the farm as comfortable and attractive as possible, and the 
children will love it as their home, and will feel a deeper respect for their 
parents, and will more fully appreciate nature in all her fruitfulness 
and glory. 

The " Bonanza," or large scale system of farming, reverses all this; for 
in that case the home is not a home, but merely a place where the family 
stay. It is seldom beautified by trees or flowers; it is unattractive, and 
the very atmosphere of such a place»will depress the mind of the true agri- 
culturalist. Such a system is always barren of what is pleasing to the 
eye, and to the mind, and is generally a system of soil butchery. 

Under the " Bonanza " system, two acres are required to do less than 
one should do, and, as a rule, everything is in a state of congestion; stren- 
uous activity abounds with, generally, unsatisfactory results. Little time 



6 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



is given to moral, mental, or physical culture, to the school or the churchy 
or the growth of religious sentiment in the community, and to the broader 
educational work, such as the "Farmers' Institute;" and the general effect 
of this stunted condition is to retard the development and improvement of 
agriculture and the people who follow it. 

It is not intended to lay down in this volume a code of imperative 
rules to govern the farmer in every act of soil culture, but rather by ex- 
planatory illustrations to present as clearly and plainly as possible the 
fundamental principles which govern the movement of moisture in the 
soil, the development of plant life, and the quantity and quality of the 
crop. After these general principles have been grasped and understood, 
the necessary labor in detail required to make agriculture profitable be- 
comes clear and easy to anyone who will give these pages a careful 
perusal. 

There cannot be laid down any rule by which to be guided in the 
cultivation of the soil under all conditions. Soil that is too wet, naturally, 
must be drained, while soil that is too dry by reason of insufficient rain- 
fall, or by reason of the fact that the rainfall in any section is not distrib- 
uted seasonably, is unfavorable to the production of any crops, but in the 
great semi-arid area of our western country we believe a general rule may 
be applied, and if followed diligently the resulting storage and conserva- 
tion of the natural rainfall in the soil will produce, in average years, as 
good crops of cereals, and of all the vegetables that are commonly grown, 
as can be produced in the humid central portions of the United States. 

Storage and conservation of the rain waters is the basis of all this 
fruitful production. Has the reader not observed instances where a heavy 
snow drift has, by reason of some obstruction in the wind's course, lodged 
in a field, and where the snow was drifted the crop in the following sum- 
mer was better ? The usual conclusion has been that the snow drift pro- 
tected the grain sown in the soil like a blanket, and the greater yield the 
following season was attributed to such protection; but this is an error. 
The reason of a greater crop on the ground so covered with the snow 
was that the snow melted gradually in the spring time and percolated into 
the soil at a much greater depth, and was stored, as in a reservoir, and, 
later, when the hot period and drought of summer came, supplied the roots 
of the plants with moisture and kept the plants growing when the plants 
in other parts of the field not so supplied were checked, and perhaps 
withered. 

By that almost unexplainable movement of the moisture in the soil 
upwards towards the surface, under a natural law which is called capil- 
lary attraction, the roots of the growing plants on the spot where the snow 
had drifted were supplied from the res ^rvoir of water below, which had 
come down into the lower strata of the soil as the snow in the drift had 
melted. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



7 



We have endeavored to show that by storage and conservation of the 
rain waters in this way, so as to save them for plant nourishment and 
growth in the summer period, like results and yields may be obtained on 
large fields, as have been observed on small patches of ground that hap- 
pened to be covered by snow drifts. It follows, then, that the greater 
amount of water we can store in the soil previous to the planting of the 
crops, as well as during their growth, and the greater care we use in the 
cultivation of the surface of the ground, so as to retain and economize the 
moisture so conserved, the greater must be the yield at harvest time. 

In connection with this fact there is another of no less importance, 
viz: the soil should be prepared as perfectly as possible to insure a prolific 
growth of roots. It is not uncommon that a single hour's extreme condition 
of the soil, as respects rapid evaporation, will reduce the crop one-half. 
If we can store and conserve in the soil a sufficient quantity of the natural 
rain waters and make them available during the growing season, and have 
coupled with the moisture a sufficient growth of roots to sustain and 
nourish the plants, a good crop is sure to be realized. 

We are well aware it is difficult to explain what is the exactly proper 
physical condition of the soil for the best results in growing crops. It is 
important to learn how to apply the most economical mechanical work to 
secure such results. There are many little things and minor points to be 
done and observed that have a- direct influence and effect in securing this 
condition, and many more that bear on the question as to how to maintain 
this good condition of the soil during the growing season, that have not 
been considered in the past, but which are vital and necessary to the best 
possible crop yields. 

With these considerations fully in mind, we have tried, in the fol- 
lowing pages, to be clear in our statements and illustrations respecting all 
these little points and duties we owe to the cultivation of the soil, and to 
make plain to the reader an explanation of our past work and the results 
of our years of experience and experiments in the semi-arid west, a sec- 
tion which at a time, not far distant, we believe will be made by our sys- 
tem of soil culture, to yield an abundance, and will be the abode of mil- 
lions of new settlers who will found homes there that shall be blessed with 
peace and plenty. 



8 



Campbell s 1902 Soil Cultuee M\>-ual. 



THE SEMI-ARID BELT. 

ITS GREAT RESOURCES AND ADVANTAGES. 



That vast country known as the Semi -Arid Belt, extending fron: 
Canada, on the north, well into Texas, and from the Rocky Mountains to the 
Missouri River, and across that river, easterly, through the Dakotas and 
into western Minnesota, began to receive its first settlement in consider 
able numbers about twenty-five years ago. 

The experiences of the people who have lived in that country of great 
prairies during this period have been varied in the extreme. They have 
had years of partial and years of total failures, and interspersed along with 
occasional years of good crops. Alternate hope and despair have filled the 
•settlers" mind>. Had it not been for the cows and chickens and the small 
garden with the windmill as an irrigator, and the stockraising industry . 
much of that great section would long ago have been largely depopulated 
and abandoned as an agricultural countrj-. 

Up to 1894 very little attention had been given to the question as to 
how the soil of that section might be treated to insure crop>s, and the old 
method of farming was pursued, with the usually attendant disappoint- 
ment. 

The press driU and other tools were introduced as having the re- 
quired merits for overcoming the drought; irrigation was talked of and in 
some instances tried: summer fallowing was tried without any material 
change in crop results. 

The *'Rain Maker " came, and with boastful confidence in his pow- 
ers attempted to perform miracles, and failed. 

Trees and orchards by the thousands were planted all over that 
country, only to be cut down by the hot winds and the long periods of 
mid-summer drought. During this time agriculturical colleges were es- 
tablished in these states, but the conditions as respects both the climate 
and soil formations were all new. and it was first necessary for the pro- 
fessors to study and experiment to ascertain what might be done and how 
to do it to overcome what appeared to be insurmountable difficulties. 

Not until the subject of the storage and conservation of the natural 
rainfall in the .soil began to be comprehended did any real light or hope 
for the successful solurion of this hard problem come to us. 

The development of our investigations, pursued along this line of 
thougnt and theory, has at last brought us to the one significant conclu- 
sion, namely, that the storage and conservation of the rainfall in the soil 
by our method of cultivation is the only means of saving that great sec- 
tion and making it bloom and prosper. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



9 



THE FOMEROY MODEL FARM. 

ITS MISSION. 



_ The Pomeroy Model Farm was established at Hill City, in Graham 
County, Kansas, in March, 1900, for the sole purpose of demonstrating 
what might be accomplished in a section of the Semi-Arid Belt under the 
so-called " Campbell Method of Soil Culture." For three or four years 
considerable effort had been made by the railroads in the Dakotas, Ne- 
braska, and Kansas to encourage better cultivation along their lines by 
•establishing what was then called Experimental Farms. Arrangements 
were made with individual farmers in various localities, sixteen in all, in 
1896, and upwards of forty in 1897, a much less number in 1898, and in 
the fall of that year we refused to proceed further *on this plan, as a 
general supervision of all this work was left to us. From the work 
done a fair amount of good results were secured so far as the public 
at large were concerned; but, personally, we obtained much valuable 
information and made a great deal of progress in our discoveries in soil 
culture. 

In the first place it seemed entirely out of the question with our oc- 
casional visits for the average operator of these experimental farms to 
grasp the principles and rules of the system. It was not uncommon for 
us to find the man in charge very busy with his own private work, conse- 
quently his mind and attention were not given to the necessary points in 
the work on the experimental plat. He was ia a hurry, and sometimes 
seemed a little anxious for us to move on. 

In the next place, there w^as an expectation of too much from the first 
year's cultivation. While the great amount of work done created general 
interest, and considerable curiosity as to what might result from it, the 
special interest was not what it would have been had the work been more 
thorough and confined to a less number of stations. 

At the Pomeroy Model Farm no other kind of work has been at- 
tempted est ept to grow crops, trees, shrubbery, and orchards under the 
Campbell method, and due attention has been given to the proper prepara- 
tion of the soil, and the storing and conserving in the soil the natural rain- 
fall. One of the important discoveries we are now making and are working 
out, and happily with great satisfaction and remarkable results, is the effect 
and value of summer cultivation, which aids so materially to store and con- 
serve the rain waters during the entire season, preparing the seed bed for 
the sowing of grain in the fall or planting in the following spring. So far, 
ot ly winter wheat has been grown on soil thus treated, and the yield ob- 
tained in 1901 was fully three hundred per cent, more than the yield of 



10 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



adjoining farms cultivated by the usual method of farming. In 1902^ 
other crops will be grown on ground thus treated. 

The general plan of our cultivation on the Pomeroy Model Farm is 
exactly as explained in the different chapters of this volume. Many new 
and important experiments will be worked out there during the coming 
season, which we are sure will add greatly to the discoveries and knowl- 
edge already made and obtained on this invaluable subject. 

The illustrations shown in cuts Nos. 14, 15 and 16 very clearly dem- 
onstrate the value of our plan of growing and developing trees. We have 
laid out with considerable care a part of the farm for buildings, setting 
apart a parcel of land for a garden and small fruits, with the orchard in 
the rear; the object being to create here an ideal farm home. 

To our mind, there is nothing that means more to all of us as a 
neighborhood, county, state or nation than the increasing improvement of 
our farm homes, and making them attractive and pleasant. The influ- 
ences that go out from such homes for good are felt in many ways. In 
the attractiveness of the farm home for the wife and children, there is 
found the primal creation and nurture of the most valuable mental gifts, 
and the dearest affections. In the orchards, and the shade trees, and in the 
flowers and shrubs that adorn a home are to be found the objects to which 
the heart is attached with more tenacity and tenderness than the domain 
of lands 

In our experience thus far, it is clear that in five years time one may 
grow up shade and ornamental trees, as well as fruit trees, to such an ex- 
tent as to yield beauty, comfort and profit, which largely embody all the 
factors that are required to make the ideal farm home. Consider for a 
moment that the bh ak prairie may be transformed into ideal farm homes 
in the short space of five years. Nothing can add more to the wealth of 
the country and the value of our farm lands than such improvements 
created generally over our western prairies. We have in mind an instance 
in the early settlement of Eastern Nebraska which was related to us by 
one of the parties coni erned, that illustrates the love of the average man 
for tret s. A man from Ohio with a reasonable amount of means had 
come to Nebraska to buy a farm. He was offered one with good buildings 
and other improvements, Excepting there was no orchard or shade trees. 
The price asked was $15.00 per acre, but he purchased the farm adjoining, 
on which there were no better buildings, and the land was of precisely the 
same character, but with an orchard of five acres and a liberal number of 
shade and ornamental trees around the buildings of about eight years' 
growth, and the purchaser paid just twice the price of the other farm — 
paying, as you observe, as mu< h for the fruit and shade trees as he paid 
for the land and all the other improvements. This may have been an ex- 
treme case, but it shows quite clearly how dominant is the love in all of 
us for such adornments of the hom.e as nature gives us in beautiful trees. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



II 



In our small towns on the prairies we find, occasionally, homes with 
a liberal number of trees around them, all in healthy and thrifty condi- 
tion, having been carefully pruned, showing symetrical and uniform shape, 
and greatly attractive. Such homes are envied by the passers by, and 
comments are frequent with reference to their beauty and attractiveness, 
and a very common remark is, "I would like to have such a home." 

Outside of the pleasure and real comfort to be derived from numer- 
ous shade and ornamental trees, there is also much value in them in the 
protection of our fields and crops. It has long been asserted by scientists 
that the growing of trees on the bare prairies will increase the rainfall. If 
there is any reliable evidence of this to be gathered by common observa- 
tion, we must admit there is truthfulness in this theory, for in the eastern 
portions of Nebraska and Kansas the statements of the older settlers 
verify it. 

In the early days, when the prairies of eastern Nebraska and Kan- 
sas were as treeless as is the extreme western portion of these states today, 
failure by drought was not uncommon, while now, with almost every sec- 
tion of land bordered and defined by trees, and with groves and wood- 
lands everywhere, the reverse is quite true. The effect of trees in lifting 
the hot south winds from the surface and carrying them over the grow- 
ing crops is perceptible; especially is this noted where there is a consider- 
able growth of trees, and a crop planted on the north side of the grove. 
It should therefore go without further argument that the planting of 
trees is important, even in the more humid portions of our country, but 
especially important and valuable in the semi-arid sections. 

That trees can be grown in the semi-arid belt by the simple appli- 
cation of the "Campbell Method," there is no further question. Evi- 
dence is now too conclusive for any one to deny this assertion. Not only 
is this true, but with careful attention trees may be made to grow as rap- 
idly as in any section of the east or middle west, and conclusive evidence 
of this may be seen now on the Pomeroy Model Farm. 

One of the principal objects for which the Pomeroy Model Farm was 
established was to present a practical illustration and demonstration, not 
only to show how easily and quickly trees may be grown and orchards 
brought to a bearing condition, but how inexpensively all this can be 
done. The prevailing notion that the cost of growing an orchard, or lines 
of shade trees around the farm buildings, is large is very erroneous. It 
takes but very little time and expense if the farmer but understands and 
will practice the right method of doing it. It is not difficult at all, and 
only requires comparatively little labor to accomplish surprising results. 
In a subsequent chapter, entitled "Growing Trees," we have gone into de- 
tails of our method quite extensively. The further and principal object of 
the Pomeroy Model Farm is to demonstrate that good crops may be grown 
each and every year by that proper cultivation which will store and con- 



/ 



12 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



serve the rain waters. Also, to show that the necessary work is very simple 
and easy, and not at all expensive. Many farmers, who have read or heard 
something of the "Campbell Method," stand in their own light and con- 
tinue to lose crops by presuming that this new method of cultivation is 
too expensive. The additional labor required is nothing compared to the 
difference between a forty-bushel and an eight-bushel crop. 

The expense per acre of operating the Pomeroy Model Farm for the 
year 1901 was 85.48. This includes all cash paid out for labor, feed for 
teams, and six per cent, interest on S20.00 per acre, the estimated valua- 
tion of the land, and ten per cent, on the total valuation of teams and 
tools. In this comjjutation there is included the cost of all the work done 
on the orchard, which contains ten acres. Our figures are high, and we 
have made them so because no work was done of any kind or nature on 
the farm that was not paid for at a good x>rice. Those interested in these 
particular topics should watch closely the yields of the crops on this farm 
in 1902 and compute the profit of farming by our method. 

It w^ill pay any man to visit this farm in June next, even though he 
lives hundreds of miles away, for he will find there a series of glad sur- 
prises, and he will, better than all else, find that "seeing is believing,'" 
and he will return home and, we believe, begin at once to cultivate the 
soil as we cultivate it on the "Model Farm" in Graham County, Kansas. 



FLOWING. 



In outlining our general suggestions for securing the best possible 
crop results throughout this great plains country, we must of course begin 
with the preparation of the ground. Owing to the fact that in the settled 
portions the average farmer has already a sufficient area of ground under 
cultivation, we will start out with the preparation of ground that has been 
in crop the previous year. The first and all important work is the double 
discing of this ground in early spring, beginning as soon as the frost is 
out a fair depth and the surface sufficiently dry to allow of discing with- 
out having the soil adhere to the disc too much. It is not uncommon to 
see farmers double disc by first going over the ground one way and then 
cross disc it. This results in a series of ridges and trenches, leaving the 
surface very uneven. The trenches exposing solid soil to the surface allow 
of much evaporation. The proper manner of double discing is to lap half, 
which leaves the surface smooth and thoroughly pulverized. In the lap- 
ping of the half of the disc the last time over, the last discs revolve at right 
angles with the discs that precede. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



13 



It is hard to put too much stress upon this important point. Bear- 
ing in mind that the all important element for the successful growth of 
our crops is water, we must lose no opportunity of conserving and storing 
the water from the earliest part of the spring to late in the fall. By the 
double discing explained in the previous paragraph, we have done two very 
important things in the storing and conserving of water. First, the pul- 
verizing of the surface forms a dry, loose mulch of soil which prevents 
evaporation. 

Second, it leaves the surface in the best possible condition for rapid 
downward percolation of the melted snows and rains which may fall later. 




Cut No. 1 



Evaporation and percolation are more fully explained in chapters to fol- 
low. After thoroughly pulverizing the surface to stop the evaporation we 
can then do our plowing a little later, regardless of the climatic conditions 
which may exist, and we shall find the soil in a moist condition. It is very 
important that much care and attention be given to the condition of the 
ground at the time the plowing is done. Land should not be plowed when 
in bad physical condition, even though the surface soil contains more 
plant nourishment than the sub-surface does, for good physical conditions 
are quite as necessary, perhaps more necessary, than an abundance of 
available plant food. This cannot be obtained in the seed and root bed 
unless careful attention is given to these points. 



14 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



In cut No. 1, we illustrate the common condition of ordinary plowed 
fields. Note carefully the appearance underneath the portion of the fur- 
row that has been thrown over by the mouldboard on to the side of the 
next furrow. Here is the stubble, weeds, and clods that have rolled from 
the next furrow, while right at the point where the furrow is tipped over 
thesoil is firm from the bottom up. The usual manner of further fitting 
thisjground is by the use of the harrow. This has a tendency to level, and, if 
shallow plowed, to work the ground down fairly w^ell at the bottom of the 
plowing, but in deep plowing, of five or more inches, the harrow has but 
little effect upon these cavities underneath. This is a very serious propo- 




Cut No. 2. 



sition, and it is the source of many bad conditions, which have a direct 
effect upon the final yield of the crops. First of all, it cuts off the seed or 
root bed from the sub-soil below; thus preventing the movement of any 
moisture from the sub-soil up into the root bed. It also forms air spaces 
or cavities where a volume of air may exist, which aids in drying out the 
soil immediately adjacent. It also prevents the lateral roots and feeders 
from extending and permeating this portion of the soil, thus leaving a 
large per cent, of our surface soil in a condition not at all beneficial to the 
growing crop. 

In cut No. 2, we show the cross-section of the same two furrows 
shown in cut No. 1. Here the cavities and loose condition of the soil at 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



15 



the bottom of the furrow have all been obliterated by the use of the sub- 
surface packer, which is illustrated in cut No. 3. These sharp, wedge- 
faced wheels have both a downward and lateral pressure against 
the soil in the spaces between them. The soil is moved by the packer in 
such a manner as to form a firm and evenly compacted stratum. After 
the packer has been used, by the use of the ordinary smoothing harrow, or 
the Acme harrow (so-called), the surface is pulverized and made fine, and 
part of thejower portion of the stratum mentioned and shown in cut No. 2 
is made firm, forming a perfect seed bed, while the lower portion of the 
same stratum or furrow slice may be properly termed the root bed. 

With this general explanation, let us return to the question of plow- 
ing. With the varied experiences of the average farmer throughout the 
semi-arid west there has arisen a great variety of ideas with reference to 




Cut No. 3. 



depths of plowing, and as to whether it is advisable to even plow more 
than once in a space of two or three years. Each farmer believing he has 
conceived a very plausible reason why he should plow three or five inches, 
or why he should not plow at all. Now, I fully appreciate the honesty and 
good intentions of the farmer, but the reason there is such a great variety 
of opinion is because they do not grasp the importance of a certain physi- 
cal condition of the soil, one that is favorable to holding the largest 
amount of moisture to the square inch, one that is favorable to the most 
rapid movement of moisture by capillary attraction, and one that is favor- 
able to the most prolific growth and development of the lateral roots with 
their thousands of little feeders. This condition cannot be secured at its 
best and the largest productive results obtained without thoroughly plow- 
ing, pulverizing and compacting the soil each and every year. The point 
gained by the plowing at a sufficient depth to stir the soil which will later 



16 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



contain the major part of the feeding roots is that of increasing the water 
holding capacity of the soil. The more completely we can separate one 
particle from another, reducing the soil to the greatest fineness, then 
thoroughly firming it, the greater is its water holding capacity. Water is 
not held in tbe soil in cavities or spaces, but is held in the form of films or 
coverings around each diminutive soil particle, consequently the greater 
number of small particles of soil we have the greater the amount of water 
held. We can illustrate by a cube one inch square; this contains six square 
inches of surface. Cut this cube into eight squares one-half inch square 
and we have twelve square inches of surface. Now, cutting each half- 
inch cube into eight one-fourth inch squares we have twenty-iour square 
inches of surface, thereby increasing the water holding capacity three 
hundred per cent. The tendency of all soil that is left for one or more 
years without being plowed or pulverized, is to form into larger soil grains. 
By the little particles adhering to each other, cemented or attach* d by 
the salts, magnesias and alkalies that are dissolved by the water as it per- 
colates down and then moves upward, holding these properties in solution, 
and as the moisture passes off by evaporation, these salts and alkalies fill 
the little spaces, and the smaller particles form larger soil grains and thus 
decrease the water holding capacity. 

There is still another important point, and that is the thorough cir- 
culation of air in the soil. Air, like water, is an important element in the 
soil, and, like water, it must be finely and evenly distributed. 

In further discussing the question of what is the proper physical 
condition of the soil when plowing is done, we would call your attention to 
the furrow as it is turned over by the plow when the soil is simply moist — 
not very wet nor very dry. How nicely each little particle of soil seems to 
separate, one from the other, when, if too dry, a cloddy condition is ob- 
served; and the same is true when the soil is too wet. We should try to 
secure the most uniform, fine condition of our soil for the threefold pur- 
pose that it may contain more water, that moisture may move more rap- 
idly through it, and that there may be a more prolific growth of roots. 
By close observation and careful attention to these important points we 
may secure a crop result fully one hundred per cent, greater than we could 
obtain if these items were disregarded. 

The proper depth of plowing must be governed very largely by 
the kind of tools you have for after-fitting and care and attention 
which you give the work. In some localities the sub-surface packer is 
quite commonly used. If you have one of these tools it is advisable to plow 
at least six or seven inches deep, following the plow closely with the sub- 
surface packer; provided, however, the ground has been previously disced so 
as to retain the moisture, when you will be able to completely obliterate 
all the cavities, leaving the under portion of the furrow slice thoroughly 
fine and firm as shown in cut No. 2. If you have no sub-surface packer I 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



17 



would not advise plowing over four or five inches deep, and use the com- 
mon harrow with teeth slightly slanting and weighted; the object being 
to pulverize and firm and compact the under portion of the furrow. These 
observations are very important. Much care and attention should be 
given to the furrow slices that they may be even in width and depth, so 
that when you go over the ground with your packer or harrow there may be 
no soil spaces left loose and porous. It is hardly possible for the average 
farmer to conceive the great importance of thoroughly fining and firming 
the entire plowed portion. In the ordinary conditions as found at the bot- 
tom of furrows in plowing left without any further work until it has all 
dried out, shown in cut No. 1, fully one-third of the soil contributes no 
nourishment whatever to the growth or production of the crop. By 
adding a little extra pains and labor that one-third of non-productive 
soil may be put in condition to do its full share in making a larger and 
better crop. By closely following this rule you will greatly increase the 
quantity and quality of your crops of small grain. 

There is no economy, but, on the other hand, great waste, in trying 
to economize or Miinimize the amount of labor required to thorougly pre- 
pare the soil for the sowing or planting of grain, for the work of thorough 
preparation is easily and quickly done, and when once done a successful 
harvest is assured. 



SUB-SURFACE PACKING. 



The belief used to be almost universal among farmers that firming 
the ground, as with the roller, or making firmer the soil in any way, in- 
creased its water-holding capacity. Firming the surface of the ground 
does, in fact, for the time increase the amount of water which may be held 
in the compacted portion, and it is therefore natural that this belief should 
have been general among farmers. Some lessons of vital importance may 
be learned upon this subject. The movement of the water in the soil.un- 
der varying conditions of the soil and the surface should be well under- 
stood by every farmer. A discussion of the subject may not seem of in- 
terest to the average farmer, yet the well established facts in regard to 
this subject have great weight when carefully considered in connection 
with the preparation of the soil for crops and in determining the quantity 
and quality of all our crops. 

Prof. F. H. King, of the State University of Wisconsin, undoubtedly 
one of the most learned men in soil physics we have in the west, if not in 
the country, has recently published a book entitled " The Soil," which 



18 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Ma>-ual. 



book should, by the way, be in the hands of every farmer. In treating 
the question of the effect of rolling on soil moisture, he says: 

"When, however, the changes in the water contents of the surface 
four feet of soil which follow the use of a heavy roller are studied, it is 
found that we have here another case of the translocation of soil moisture: 
a case where by destroying the many large non-capillary pores in the soil, 
and bringing its grains more closely together, its water-lifting power is 
increased and to such an extent that often within twenty-four hours after 
rolling, the upper one or two feet beneath the firm ground have come to 
contain more moisture than similar and immediately adjacent land does at 
the same level, while the lower two feet have become dryer. Water has 
been lifted from the lower into the upper soil. 

"In the table below will be seen the difference in the water con- 
tents of the soils which have been rolled and the immediately adjacent 
ones not so treated. These results are averages derived from 147 sets of 
samples : 

"Surface 36 to 54 inches, unrolled, contained 19.43 per cent, of water. 
Surface 36 to 54 inches, rolled, contained 18.72 per cent, of water. 

Difference, .71 per cent, of water. 

Surface 24 inches, unrolled, contained 19.85 per cent, of water. 
Surface 24 inches. rolled, contained 19.49 per cent, of water. 

Difference. .36 

Surface 2 to 18 inches, unrolled, contained 15.64 per cent, of water. 
Surface 2 to 18 inches, rolled, contained 15.85 per cent, of water. 

Difference, x .21 " 

It is here seen that when samples of soil are taken at a depth ex- 
ceeding two feet, the rolled ground as a whole is dryer than that not 
rolled, and that this difference is greater when the samples are taken at a 
depth of from three to four or more feet. The data presented also shows 
that the surface 2 to 18 inches of loose ground recently firmed contains 
more water than that which has not been so treated. This presents an 
important thought in regard to preparation of the soil. It is a matter 
we have carefully studied, and in aU our experiment work we have 
observed that the statements of Prof. King have been verified fully; thu^ 
affording conclusive proof of the truth of all that we have said with refer- 
ence to the sub-surface packing of the soil. When the extreme surface is 
packed the effect is to draw the moisture to the surface where it is lost by 
evaporation. By the sub-packing, as shown in cut Xo. 2, we have that 
firm stratum at the point where the roots mainly grow, and with our loose 
mulch on the surface we prevent the loss of our moisture by evaporation. 
In our chapter on percolation we explained at some length how the water 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



19 



is gotten into the ground. After we have succeeded in storing a large 
quantity of water down in the soil to a depth of four, six, or possibly ten 
feet, the sub-packing, or thorough firming of the lower portion of the fur- 
row slice, is very important, for when our crops reach the long, dry peri- 
ods of extreme heat, such as was experienced in mid-summer of 1901, we 
are in position to feed the plant all the moisture it needs and thus prevent 
any material loss or damage. As shown by Prof. King, in 147 tests, the 
packing of the lower portion does materially aid the movement of moisture 
stored in the soil in its upward course to feed the roots. 

We wish to impress upon the mind of the reader quite clearly the 
importance of doing everything possible to provide an ample amount of 




Cut No. 4. 

available moisture at all times. When we reach a point in the ex- 
treme heated portion of the last afternoon prior to a heavy rain, 
where our supply of moisture is beginning to shorten, the fact that we 
have by this sub-surface packing been able to lift the water stored below 
a little faster may save our crop. 

In cut No. 4, we represent the cross-section of a lateral or branch 
root very largely magnified. The little branches running out from the 
center represent the little hair roots, or feeders, which are often so small 
that they are scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. These little feeders 
are nothing more nor less than little tubes, or elongated cells. You will 
notice in the outer tier of cells each little feeder practically forms a part of 
the cell. Around this root are four white spots, which represent air 
spaces. They are, however, extremely small, not larger than the head of 
a pin; yet, small as they are, you notice how the little feeders turn away 



20 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



from them. The soil where this root is located is represented to be very 
fine and firm. Under this condition we are able to get the greatest possi- 
ble development of roots. 

In cut No. 5, we represent a coarser or less compacted soil. Here 
the lateral root is only able to send out two little feeders. This condition 
is of much importance. We have examined roots many times and found 
them 3, i, and 5 inches in length, with scarcely a hair root or feeder the 
entire distance. Then coming, possibly, to the compacted soil beneath a 
horse-foot track, we would find a complete net-work of little feeders run- 
ning in every direction. There are two reasons for this greatly increased 
number of feeders in the compacted soil. One is the compact condition 



Cut No. 5. 

so favorable to the development of roots; the other is the greater amount 
of moisture contained, which, as we have shown by a quotation from Prof. 
King, is the result of an increased capillary attraction which has drawn 
moisture from below. 

It is hardly possible to put too much stress upon the point of thor- 
ough pulverizing and compacting of the seed bed. Probably the strong- 
est or most complete practical illustration was brought out at the Pomeroy 
Model Farm, at Hill City, Kansas, in the growth and development of the 
wheat sown in the fall of 1901. This ground had been prepared with the 
greatest possible care, having been plowed seven inches deep, with the 
soil in a moist condition, kept so by the discing and harrowing of the sur- 
face. When plowed, the plow was followed closely with the sub-surface 
packer, and the Acme harrow following closely the sub-surface packer. 
By endeavoring to do all the work when the soil was in proper condition. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



21 



we had secured a very favorable physical condition. At the time of seed- 
ing, October 8th, 9th, and 10th, there was a fine loose mulch on the sur- 
face two and one-half inches deep. The soil immediately beneath was 
very fine, firm, and moist. The wheat was put in with a shoe-drill, less 
than one-half bushel of seed to the acre, from one-half to one inch into 
this fine moist soil, just beneath the mulch. Germination and develop- 
ment was rapid. The fourth day, as regular as the days came after seed- 
ing, the little green spears could be seen the entire length of the row. On 
the seventh day these leaves measured from three to four inches high. 
Thus, in seven days, the hard, dry seeds had become moistened, burst 
their shells, and sent up the little stalks, and laterally the little rootlets, 
and had grown to a height of five or six inches from the seed. This is not 
all. On the 16th of November this wheat was taller and thicker than a 
field sown on the 16th of September, with one and one-quarter bushels of 
seed. This phenomenal difference is directly due to two conditions, 
namely: First, the very fine, firm seed and root bed; second, the loose 
surface, which prevented the evaporation. 

We can cite many instances where the value of firming the under 
portion of the furrow slice has been shown to be very great. In the spring 
of 1899 a large amount of winter wheat in the semi-arid belt was 
found to have been killed. We drove over many fields that spring to inves- 
tigate and study the cause as far as possible. One fact was invariably 
perceptible — where the soil was light and loose to a considerable depth the 
wheat was entirely dead. In the more compact portions or spots in the 
fields the condition of the wheat was found better. For instance, along 
the sides of the dead furrows almost all of the wheat was found to be in a 
perfectly healthy condition, while on the back furrows it was usually all 
dead. Again, at the corners of fields where lands were plowed around, 
and the horses in turning had tramped and compacted the plowed ground, 
the wheat was found to be in fairly good condition. The horse-foot and 
wheel tracks invariably had a favorable effect. This is a condition and 
result that is corroborated by all investigators, that if there is plenty of 
moisture in the ground there is little or no danger of freezing or winter 
killing, while if the soil conditions become too dry serious results 
follow. The same was fully shown in the quotation from the Illinois Ag- 
ricultural College Bulletin, portions of which we quote under the head- 
ing of " Raising Trees."' These conditions bear out all observation, both 
with reference to the fact that compacting the soil will increase the water 
contents of the packed portions, and the further fact, as stated by the Illi- 
nois Bulletin, that if there be plenty of moisture about the roots there is 
practically no injury from freezing. 

One point which we have tried to impress upon our readers at sev- 
eral different points is the difl&culty and danger that may arise in even a 
short time when the roots may be just a little short of the necessary 



22 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



moisture, and the importance of having a compact condition of the lower 
portion of the furrow slice to lessen the danger. Prof. King has shown, 
by practical experiments, and all observation confirms his conclusions, 
that in soil that is packed the moisture moves upward from a depth of 
from one to four feet much more rapidly than in loose soil. It is therefore 
important to have this packing when a condition of extreme drought is 
reached, as it may be the one thing that will save a crop. 

It must be borne in mind that Prof. King experimented in packing 
at the extreme surface, where nearly all the moisture that had moved to 
this point was lost by evaporation, and that had the packing been done 
just below the surface the contrast would have been much greater. This 
fact should also be borne in mind, that Prof. King's experiments were 
on the grounds of the Wisconsin college, where soil moisture is invariably 
found all through the soil down to sheet water. Had the experiments 
been made in our semi-arid region, the contrast would have been greater. 
If we get our soil moistened here to a depth of four or five feet we have 
exceeded by some distance the usual conditions, and this depth of soil 
moisture would be sufficient to carry us any ordinary season in the success- 
ful growth of crops. Had Prof. King's experiments been made with a three- 
inch layer of loose soil mulch above the packed portion, they would have 
shown a much greater increase of moisture at the point of 2 to 18 inches. 

All these facts in connection with the movement of moisture in the 
soil, under different conditions of the soil, as indicated in the experiments 
noted and the teachings of the most eminent students of soil physics, give 
us the valuable lesson that the packing of the subsoil, or what may be 
properly termed the root-bed, aids us in these important points; increas- 
ing the water holding capacity of the soil facilitates the movement of the 
water from below up to this point when it is needed, is conducive to a much 
greater development of root growth; and still further, and quite as impor- 
tant, enables us to utilize the entire soil, having no waste ground caused 
by a loose or porous condition of the soil as shown in cut No. 5. 

This is so important that it may be stated again plainly, so that no 
reader may misunderstand. The process of packing the under portion of 
furrow or plowed ground creates three conditions to aid in carrying the 
growing crop over long dry periods, namely: 

1. More water in the soil. 

2. A stronger capillary movement of water. 

3. More prolific growth of roots. 

Don't pack the surface; it increases the loss of moisture by evap- 
oration. 

Less seed is needed in packed soil than in loose soil for the same 
crop result. 

Pack the lower portion of your plowing the same day you plow, to 
save the moisture. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Majs^ual. 



23 



Winter wheat will not winter-kill in firmed, moist soil, while in loose 
soil it frequently thins out or kills out entirely. 

A fine, firm root bed, with a loose surface or mulch, is a condition 
that will withstand the extreme dry periods longest without any injury 
to the plant. 

Study well the question of thoroughly pulverizing and packing the 
lower portion of the plowing: a full understanding of its importance 
means many dollars, because it means a larger crop result. 

Sub-surface packing increases the moisture in the lower portion of 
the plowed ground and induces decomposition of the weeds, stubble, or 
manures that have been turned under, thereby adding humus, the all im- 
portant soil ingredient for rapid plant growth, as well as enabling the 
plant to withstand drought. 

If you would get your soil to a condition of fineness and firmness, 
do all your work to that end when the soil is just slightly moist, for it 
then plows better, packs better, and cultivates better. Do not go to work 
on plowed ground that is dried to the bottom, whether plowed in good 
condition or not, and expect in any way to get the lower portion of the 
furrow in good condition. You may improve it. The closer you keep to 
the plow the better you can pack the under portion. 



THE DISC HARROW, ITS USE AND 

ABUSE. 



To my mind there is scarcely an agricultural implement more im- 
portant to the western farmer than the disc harrow. Its usefulness however, 
from its first conception to the present time, has been more or less misunder- 
stood by the farmer. Thousands of acres of wheat have been put in by the 
use of the disc harrow alone, that has not turned the farmer any profit, and 
many times a loss of not only his labor but seed. The great value of the 
disc harrow lies in its adaptability to the protection of moisture, and the 
preparation of the surface soil for the encouragement of rapid percolation 
of the rain water. It has been used on thousands of acres in lieu of plow- 
ing, when it should have been used to precede the plow. We have quoted, 
under the heads of Evaporation and Cultivation, instances where the early 
use of the disc for the sole purpose of preventing evaporation and preparing 
the surface to receive and utilize further rains, has resulted in giving the 
farmer increased yields of corn as high as twenty bushels to the acre. 
Think of twenty bushels of corn per acre for only 50 cents of extra expense ! In 



24 



Campbell s 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



the handling of fields for summer culture there is no tool that can take the 
place of the disc harrow, cost of labor and value of work considered; and 
while it is not a tool that can be continuously used, we do not see how a man 
can successfully handle an orchard without it. The disc harrow cannot alone 
be used to prepare a field for a crop, but in connection with the plow its 
work is most valuable. The complete pulverizing and thorough separat- 
ing of the particles one from another in its rotating action, when proper 
diameter of disc is used, is perfect. 

SIZE OF DISC. 

When disc harrows first came in use the common size was 14 inches 
in diameter and this size we still prefer, but the demand seems to be for 
larger discs, the farmers conceiving the idea that they draw lighter. 
While this is true the pulverizing effect of the 16 inch is not as good as the 
14, the 18 inch even less, and a 20 inch we would not have on a farm. Just 
a moment's thought on this point and you will readily see the reason. The 
larger the disc the slower it revolves, consequently the pulverizing effect is 
decreased as the size of the disc is increased. I have noticed 20 inch discs 
rolling along when soil was somewhat dry, and simply slice the soil, raising 
it up a little and letting it fall back in exactly the same position it was be- 
fore the disc passed over. The process simply made these little crevices 
and actually increased the evaporation of moisture, instead of decreasing 
as it should do. A 14 inch disc moving along at the same rate of speed 
would revolve faster, therefore, pulverize and completely reverse the soil. 

Don"t buy a disc too large in diameter. The smaller the diameter of 
the disc the finer and more completely it pulverizes the soil. 

A large diameter disc draws easier but does not do as good work. 
Always double-disc by lapping half; this leaves your field level. 



CULTIVATION. 



There is probably no question connected with soil culture that has 
received more attention, and has been more thoroughly discussed than 
that of cultivation of corn, potatoes, and other growing crops. In the past 
few years we have heard much about shallow cultivation. In fact it seems 
to be the prevailing idea. It needs no argument with the average farmer 
to-day to persuade him that deep cultivation with the old long pointed 
shovels is not the thing. Shallow cultivation is not, however, well under- 
stood. There are many important points not generally observed. In cut 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



25 



No. 6, we show a hill of potatoes which has been grown by shallow culti- 
vation. It is proper to add that this -ground was first plowed eight 
inches deep, having been previously disced, the plow followed with a sub- 
surface packer, and the whole portion made thoroughly fine and firm. In 
securing this illustration, the lateral roots of many different hills were 
washed out. The main roots running from the stock were almost inva- 




Cut No. 6. 



riably found to have traversed in quite a uniform distance from the sur- 
face of moisture; the little branches running out from the main roots 
taking various directions, some lateral and some down. This illustration 
quite perfectly shows all these important facts. Notice the two and a-half 
inch mulch, and the very fine, uniform condition of the balance of the 
furrow or plowed portion, where may be seen numerous roots. This rep- 
resents a hill of potatoes taken from a field grown on our farm in Brown 
County, South Dakota, in 1894, when thirty-two acres of high, level prairie 



26 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



produced an average of 142 bushels to the acre, and this in a season when 
almost all crops throughout the entire semi-arid belt were ruined by the 
extreme drought. 

In cut No. 7, we give another illustration of potatoes grown under 
other conditions. This ground was treated practically the same as that 
shown in cut No. 6, but deep cultivation was applied, and less frequent. 




Cut No. 7. 

This field was cultivated three times, cutting fully four inches deep, which 
resulted in destroying nearly all the main lateral roots, while the other 
field was cultivated eight times, cutting about two inches. The differ- 
ence in the result of the two crops was attributed directly to the treat- 
ment of the ground after planting. 

The main point we wish to show here is that time and manner have 
even more to do with the result of the crop than the kind of cultivation. 
If you would secure the greatest possible benefit from the labor given 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



27 



over to cultivation you should first provide yourself with some fine- 
toothed cultivator, so that the soil may be all thoroughly fined, leaving 
the surface of the firm soil beneath as near level as possible. Then, great 
care should be taken to catch your ground in proper condition. It is true 
there is but little time after a rain that the ground is in the best pos- 
possible condition. This is the time when the free water is all percolated 
below, and the soil to the depth which you wish to run your cultivator, is 
simply moist — not very wet nor very dry. In this condition the little par- 
ticles seem to readily separate, one from the other, then your stirred soil 
is composed of an innumerable number of little, minute lumps, forming a 
mulch that gives you the highest degree of protection. A mulch made 
when soil is in this condition will never blow. 

If the soil be too dry it breaks into large lumps which not unfre- 
quently lay in such manner as to direct volumes of air through the large 
spaces between them down to the solid and firm soil beneath, causing 
much loss by evaporation. It is needless to mention the difficulty arising 
from cultivating soil that is too wet. When worked it becomes what is 
known as "puddled," and then when dried it becomes hard as brick and a 
heavy rain is required to even dissolve the lumps so that they may after- 
wards be pulverized. 

SAVING WATER BY CULTIVATION. 

There are two vital points in regard to the successful growing of 
crops in the western country, and the average farmer appears to find^ it 
difficult to comprehend either. This is largely because of his past experi- 
ence in the more humid sections of the country where it was not neces- 
sary to consider or study these questions. The first is the importance of 
getting all the water possible into the gronnd, and second, using every 
possible means to conserve or retain it there. 

The importance, or value, of a little additional water is shown by 
the effect of snow drifts that may form on the field from any cause. The 
increased amount of moisture that seems to find its way into the soil 
when the snow melts invariably makes itself apparent in the growing crop 
as soon as a dry period begins to affect the crop in the least. At these 
points the crop always holds out longer, sometimes carrying the crop over 
to another good rain, which results in maturing an unusually large yield 
on these places, while the balance of the field will not yield to exceed one- 
half or one-fourth the amount. Thus a gain in yield of wheat of probably 
ten bushels to the acre is the result of perhaps not over one-half inch of 
additional water that had percolated into the ground. The enormous 
evaporation from our fields under favorable conditions is not in the least 
comprehended by the average farmer because he has no means of readily 
testing and proving. 



28 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



Under the heading of Evaporation, we have given the results of some 
experiments by Prof. King of the Wisconsin Agricultural College, showing 
the rapidity with which moisture will rise through the soil by what is 
known as capillary attraction, reach the surface and pass off in vapor into 
the atmosphere in a single day. Not until the farmer begins to grasp the 
vital importance of keeping even a little additional water in his soil can he 
be expected to use all due diligence in preventing this evaporation. The 
observation of the farmers throughout the semi-arid west, during the 
growing season of 1901, especially Kansas and Nebraska, ought to be amply 
convincing with reference to the value of stored water in the soil. There 
were frequent remarks during its prolonged and severe drought of the mid- 
summer with reference to how the corn continued day after day and week 
after week contending against this extreme heat without rain, without 
showing any apparent effect of drought; but this was simply the direct 
result of the unusual heavy rains in early spring that percolated down into 
the soil, in many instances 18 inches to 2 feet deeper than usual, and there 
acting as a reserve, continued to return by capillary attraction and feed 
the corn plants and other grain until it was exhausted. In this same 
chapter on Evaporation we make mention of several instances where the 
early discing of the ground resulted in retaining a suflQcient amoant of 
additional water to carry a crop of corn through, increasing its yield in 
some instances as high as twenty bushels, which was not secured in adjoin- 
ing fields, not disced, simply because the moisture was allowed to evaporate 
by leaving the surface hard and compact, as is always the condition after 
a heavy rain or snow. 

To the average farmer who has been accustomed to doing his work 
in the cultivation and plowing of his fields at times when most convenient, 
it seems rather difficult to grasp the full importance of doing all his work 
just at a time when the condition of the soil is best adapted. To grasp 
the idea that by plowing to-day we may get ten bushels of wheat to the 
acre, when if we plowed the ground four days later we would get fifteen 
bushels or vice versa seems rather ridiculous. While this statement and 
the figures used, may in most cases be a little strong, yet it is a fact that 
the average yield of a field is frequently increased or decreased quite a per 
cent, by a few days variation in the time the work is done. This is espec- 
ially true with reference to cultivation. I have in mind a case near Fair- 
mont, Neb., where the phenominal difference of fifteen to eighteen bushels 
per acre was made by cultivating a part of the field before a heavy rain of 
nearly five inches and the balance of it after this rain. The reason of this 
remarkable difference was simply what we have been dwelling upon, the 
result of retaining a large per cent, of moisture by the soil mulch produced 
by the cultivation after the rain, that was lost from the balance of the 
field by rapid evaporation. This occurred in July, and was the last culti- 
vation preparatory to what is called laying the corn by. The rain was a 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



29 



very heavy one. The part of the field that was cultivated previous to the 
rain was left with the thick compacted crust made by the heavy fall of 
water, which resulted in dissolving the loosened soil and settling it very 
close, thus leaving the surface in the best possible condition for a rapid 
movement of moisture to the surface and evaporation. Under the head of 
Capillary Attraction we have explained this more clearly. The portion 
not cultivated previous to the rain was gone over as soon after the rain as 
conditions would permit, thus producing a perfect protection to the moist- 
ure below, and bringing about the remarkable result referred to. While 
these cases cited seem like extreme instances, under similar circumstances 
you can look for similar results. When the reader begins to understand 
the direct effect of these conditions it will then be quite clear why a light 
crop was secured when a good crop might have been harvested. 

AS TO TIME OF CULTIVATION. 

The proper time for cultivating a field is one that cannot be fixed 
without much thought, observation, and judgment by the farmer, especially 
if he would get the best results. Always cultivate immediately, or as soon 
after a rain as conditions will permit you on the field, and the soil is 
suflBciently dried so that it will not adhere to the cultivator teeth, or tools 
used. We do not mean by this that the soil should be absolutely dry on 
the surface. It is an error to wait for that time, for the moment the sur- 
face is apparently dry the crust begins to form. It is desirable to catch 
the ground just before this time when all the soil is simply moist and then 
there is a free and ready separation of all particles. In this condition the 
cultivator runs the easiest, the mulch made the finest and lies up light 
and loose. If the soil is a little too wet it settles, and not unfrequently 
forms absolute and perfect connection with the firm soil below, steadily 
carrying moisture to the surface. If too dry the cultivator produces an 
imperfect mulch that gives us but little protection. 

Another and very important idea is that every moment's delay after 
the soil reaches the proper condition causes you to lose water very fast. 
It is at the rate of a quart or over per square foot per day providing it is 
clear sunny weather, and even more in case of heavy south winds. The 
more intense the heat the more frequent is it necessary to cultivate. A 
very good rule is to watch the condition of the firm soil just beneath the 
loose mulch or cultivated portion, and whenever the surface of this firm 
soil begins to show dryness it is high time to commence cultivating again. 
If the field is left too long during the extreme dry period the surface of 
the solid soil beneath the mulch will begin to form a crust, practically the 
same as is shown on the surface of the soil when uncultivated after a rain. 
This is the result of the soil composing our mulch reaching a high degree 
of heat, causing the moisture from the surface of the solid soil to form into 



30 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



vapor and pass up through the mulch. The forming of a crust under 
these conditions, as is also true on the surface, is largely the result of the 
salts and alkalies that are in a soluble condition, while the soil below is 
wet. As the moisture from the surface begins to evaporate it leaves these 
chemicals deposited in the little spaces between the soil particles practi- 
cally cementing them together. As the process goes on, the moisture line 
lowering, the surface becoming dry an eighth, quarter, or half inch, possi- 
bly an inch in depth and is filled with these chemicals which is quite de- 
trimental in the free circulation of air. 

EXPERIEISCE WITH AN ORCHARD. 

We cannot impress this point more fully upon your mind than by 
relating our experience with the orchard at the Pomeroy Farm during the 
season of 1901. We began our harvest just as the extreme hot weather and 
high winds from the south set in. About seven days before commencing 
harvest we had cultivated the orchard with the Acme harrow. Our mulch 
was a good depth and the moisture condition perfect just beneath it. The 
high winds and extreme heat delayed us materially in our harvest, and 
sixteen days had elapsed before we were able to reach the orchard again, 
as help was scarce and our grain shelling badly from the fact we could not 
get at it. We attempted the cultivation on the 17th day after the last cul- 
tivation with the Acme harrow, but the nine days of excessive heat had so 
heated the mulch as to draw the moisture from the solid soil beneath un- 
til a crust of fully half an inch had formed. The crust had become very 
hard in this time and its resistance was so great the Acme could not break 
it. At about this time, or within a day or two, we noticed the color of the 
leaves on our trees began to change to a lighter cast. Not until noticing 
this did we give special attention to the soil condition, but noting this crust 
under the mulch we immediately ordered one-half the orchard double disced 
with instructions to cut a full inch and a half deeper and awaited results. 
About the fourth day there was a perceptible change in the color of the 
leaves on the portion disced, and on the seventh day the difference was 
perceptible to any one. The leaves again took on their bright green glossy 
appearance, and new leaves coming out then we ordered the balance dou- 
ble disced. We had nearly three weeks of extreme heat after this, and yet 
during all of that time the trees were pushing out new leaves, and at the 
close of the dry period were to all appearance in as healthy and thrifty con- 
dition as at any time during the entire growing season. The changing of 
the color of the leaves in this way was not due to a lack of water at the 
roots, but simply the lack of air. 

We had a similar experience, but more clearly illustrated, in the cul- 
tivation of corn in Cheyenne county, northwest Kansas, in 1898. This de- 
monstrates very clearly the great importance of being exceedingly cautious, 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



31 



not to let any crust form under the mulch. We are of the opinion that 
many corn crops have been seriously injured by that condition, when with 
no more available moisture the crop would have come out all right had it 
not been for this crust. 

The best possible condition for rapid, healthy growth of plants is 
when the soil is fine, firm, and as full of moisture as it will naturally hold 
from the mulch down. This condition can be kept if the mulch be finely 
pulverized hy catching the soil at the proper condition after the rain, hold- 
ing it a proper thickness and recultivating as soon as the top of the firm 
soil begins to show the least indication of dryness, providing, however, that 
a sufficient amount of moisture has been stored below before planting the 
crop or during its growing period. 

KEEPING THE MULCH IN CONDITION. 

There are many important reasons why great care should be taken 
to keep the mulch in perfect condition and prevent the loss as far as possi- 
ble of any moisture by evaporatiou from the surface of the soil. The fol- 
lowing paragraph taken from Prof. King's book on "The Soil"' conveys 
some important information along this line. We quote this because it bears 
the figures of his own practical observation at various depths in the soil, 
showing the effect not only of the surface soil getting too dry but of light 
showers. He says: 

"When the surface soil has its water contents reduced so the upper 
6 to 12 inches is beginning to get dry the rate of capillary rise of water 
through it is decreased and it begins to assume the properties of .a mulch. 
But when this condition has been reached if a rain increased the thickness 
of the water film on the soil grains without causing percolation the capil- 
lary flow may be so certain that the surface foot draws upon the deeper soil 
moisture at a more rapid rate than before, causing a trans-location of the 
lower soil moisture, the deeper soil becoming measurably drier soon after 
such a rain than it was before, while the surface foot is found to contain 
more water than has fallen upon it." 

He cites the following experiment, as proof of this important prin- 
ciple. At 5:30 p. m. samples of soil were taken on a piece of fallow ground 
in one foot sections to a depth of four feet. Water was then applied to 
this surface at the rate of 1 3^ pounds to the square foot. Samples of soil 
were also taken adjacent to this wetted area to serve as a control experi- 
ment, and nineteen hours later corresponding sets of samples were again 
taken with the result stated below: 



32 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



POUNDS OF WATER PER CUBIC FEET OF WET AREA. 



1st foot. 2nd foot. 3d foot. 4th foot. 

Before wetting 11.78 15.79 14.73 14.03 

After wetting 14.06 17.52 15.58 15.40 

Gain 2.28 1.73 .85 1.43 

POUNDS OF WATER PER CUBIC FOOT OF AREA NOT WET. 

1st foot. 2nd foot. 3d foot. 4th foot. 

First samples 12.38 17.05 14.92 14.48 

Second samples 12.75 17.72 15.40 14.17 

Gain 37 .67 .48 .31 

Now it will be seen from these results that the water contents of 
the soil increased on both areas, but at the rate of 6.23 pounds to the 



square foot on the portion wet, and 1.21 pounds on the portion not wet. 
The nineteen hours which intervened between the taking of the two sets 
of samples was a period of very little evaporation, most of it being in the 
night, and the following morning was cloudy and very damp and the re- 
sult was that capillarity gave to the area not wet 1.21 pounds more water 
per square foot than it lost by evaporation, but the wet area had gained 
6.23 pounds and yet only 1}?^ pounds had been added to the surface, mak- 
ing the increase by capillarity 6.23-1.33=^4.90 lbs., and if we subtract from 
this the amount which the controlling area gained we shall have 3.69 
pounds as the water gained due to the wetting of the surface, or 453^ tons, 
or nearly half inch of rain per acre. We mention this to show the remarka- 
ble effect of these simple conditions on the changing of location or move- 
ment of moisture in the soil. It will be seen from Prof. King's statement 
that if we allow the evaporation of our surface soil to such an extent as to 
dry to some depth it is then more difficult for the moisture to rise up from 
below to feed the plant; or in other words it moves much slower, thus 
showing the importance of watching the conditions very closely. 
If there should be such a remarkable effect upon the soil one. two, three, 
and four feet below the surface by simply slightly wetting the surface 
what may we expect from the effect of a slight rain upon our moisture just 
beneath the mulch. This shows the very great importance of cultivating 
as quickly as possible after such rains. If the reader will observe and con- 
sider closely the last few remarks he will readily see that by simply shal- 
low cultivation, even though more frequent, and later cultivation, it is still 
possible to have come far short of accomplishing the best possible results. 
It is these little quite important points that the average farmer does- not in 
the least comprehend that we have frequently referred to that often causes 
trouble sometimes quite serious. 

In closing this chapter we venture to repeat that we may emphasize 
some things taught. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil' Culture Manual. 



33 



Use the long toothed weeder frequently in the early growth of corn 
and potatoes. It is a great weed killer and moistare saver. 

Try to cultivate when soil is in best condition. Put in long days 
then. Cultivation early in the morning and late at night is better than 
mid-day work. 

Cultivate to save moisture in the early spring and late fall as well as 
during the growing season. Moisture lost in the fall may be much needed 
in the coming spring and summer. 

Don't keep the old 4-shovel cultivator because you think you cannot 
afford to buy one with eight or ten shovels. It is poor economy to go on 
with the old kind. It will lose corn for you every year; and the drier the 
season the greater will be the loss. 

Time and manner of cultivation has much to do with the final yield 
of the crop. Don't let the weeds grow — they are robbers and should be 
arrested. Cultivation does not gather or make moisture, but prevents the 
evaporation or loss of it from the soil. 

The more you cultivate with care the more moisture you have in the 
soil for plant growth. The object of cultivation should not be alone to 
kill weeds but to save moisture; if due attention is given to saving moist- 
ure weeds cannot grow. Weeds should not be the indicator to show when 
there is to be more cultivation. 

Do not cultivate too shallow. The cultivator, like the plow, always 
appears to run deeper than it really does. Two inches into solid soil after 
a rain with a fine cultivator at the proper time will make 23>^ to 3 inches of 
fine, loose mulch, and this is all right under ordinary conditions, but in 
extreme heat during long dry periods, 3 to 3}4 inches of loose soil mulch 
gives better protection. 

While the cultivation of wheat and other small grain when sown 
broadcast or with the close drill is a comparatively new idea, yet no think- 
ing man can deny its importance. The introduction of the weeder has 
made it possible and successful. If the root bed has been made fine and 
firm these crops can be greatly benefited by this tool, as the long flexible 
teeth slip around the well rooted wheat and yet the young and tender 
weeds are readily destroyed and the surface soil loosened to prevent 
further evaporation. 



34 



Campbell"^ 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



SUMMER CULTURE. 

COMMONLY CALLED SUMMER FALLOW. 



The question of summer fallowing is another part or portion of soil 
culture that has been brought from the east to the semi-arid west, and 
applied with the same rules and ideas that prevailed in Michigan, Ohio, 
and the eastern states. Its purpose was to give the land a rest. It 
has been applied to many portions of the semi-arid belt, and the advan- 
tages generally derived have been so meager that the plan seems to be los- 
ing favor. We have given considerable attention to this, and we believe 
brought out some valuable yjoints or ideas to be practiced in the semi-arid 
belt. In treating the land as we would suggest we do not think the name, 
summer fallow, applies. Therefore term it summer culture; beginning 
the work as early in the spring as the frost is suflBciently out of the ground 
and the surface dry enough to permit the use of Ihe disc harrow without 
the soil adhering to the disc, going over the ground twice by lapping the 
disc one-half. This produces a mulch which prevents evaporation; also 
opens and loosens the surface, so that the later rains readily and quickly 
percolate into the soil, goin? over the ground after each subsequent rain 
with a harrow, or if the rain is too heavy so as to dissolve and pack the 
surface, a second discing may be necessary, especially so if the season is 
advanced far enough for weeds to start freely. Don't at all hazards per- 
mit the weeds to grow or the surface to become crusted, bearing in mind 
our main object is to store the water in the soil below. Plow in June or 
early July about seven inches deep. Do not leave the field at noon until 
that which has been plowed during the forenoon has been gone over with 
the sub- surface packer, if such a tool you have, if not, use the harrow. 
(If you have no packer, borrow one.) Then at night the same, and if you 
use the packer follow it with the Acme harrow at night, going over the en- 
tire day's plowing. The common harrow produces very fair results or con- 
ditions, but the Acme once over will put this ground in better condition 
than two or three times over with the common harrow. In June and July 
weeds are quite persistent and great care should be taken not to let them 
get the start of you. In fact there is but little danger of weeds if you take 
care to lose no w^ater by evaporation. All weeds are easily killed when 
small, but after the tap root has gone down and become firmly imbedded, 
the harrow, even the Acme, is not sure to destroy it. Watch the condition 
of your field, going over it as soon after a heavy rain as the soil will per- 
mit, using the Acme if you have one, and set it to cut about two inches 
deep in the solid soil. This will make you a light, loose mulch from 2^ to 
3 inches deep. Continue this persistent care through the season; in case 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



35 



of extreme heat more frequent cultivation is necessary. If it is desirable 
to put in spring crops, it is a good idea to thoroughly disc the ground as it 
goes into the winter. Then use the Acme early in the spring, just as soon 
as conditions will let you on to the ground, unless the ground has become 
unusually firm by the heavy snows or rains, then it is advisable to use the 
disc, lapping half. 

While this plan of summer culture seems to outline considerable 
extra work over the old plan of summer fallow, it will be found the most 
profitable part of the work. As we have pointed out under this heading, 
and several others, the great question for successful crop growing is ample 
available water during the entire growing season. The leading question 
with the farmer is how shall he increase his crops. 

It is altogether too common an idea that the quantity and quality of 
the crop depends upon the climatic conditions. There is no place in the 
great plains country where this theory applies with less appropriateness 
than in the semi-arid belt. The success of the farmer depend^ to a great 
measure upon the quantity and quality of the grains and vegetables that 
he raises. Under the ordinary plan of farming the expense of fitting, 
planting, and cultivating is just the same whether you get fifty bushels of 
corn or five bushels or none at all. While if we proceed properly our ex- 
pense in the work is slightly more, possibly 50 per cent, more, but even 
though it was double, and we succeed in getting twenty-five to thirty 
bushels in seasons when our neighbors under ordinary conditions get five or 
ten, does it pay? Again, if we are able to get sixty bushels of corn when 
our neighbor gets thirty, does it pay? 

THE FARMER'SICAPITAL. 

The farmer no more than the merchant can succeed without capi- 
tal. The merchant deposits his cash in the bank and draws upon it when 
he needs it to take advantage of bargains or conditions. The farmers' 
capital is the fertility of his soil, which is not available in any sense with- 
out water. Therefore the farmer, like a good collector in business, should 
catch the rainfall at every opportunity in all seasons of the year and store 
it in the ground where it is available in time of need, providing he keeps it 
locked in with the soil mulch. We need not mention here the long line of 
troubles and disappointments that follow the failure of a crop, or the re- 
verse when we succeed in growing a large crop. It simply resolves itself 
into this. First, find out what to do, then find out how to do it, then do 
it with all your might. There is no condition, position, or business to 
which this rule will apply with more gratifying results than to the sum- 
mer cultivation, and general care of the soils in the semi-arid belt. 

In the question of summer culture the main object is to store the 
water, but this is not the only advantage gained. There are two other 



36 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



points, one of which is a some-what recent discovery but apparently quite 
correct, and this is, that moisture stored in the ground is more valuable 
for plant growth than the same quantity of water having just fallen from a 
rain. Professor Shepherd of North Dakota, makes the assertion that one 
inch of stored water is equivalent to two inches of rainfall. We are in- 
clined to believe that he is correct. By holding the moisture near the sur- 
face during the more heated portions of the season we succeed in securing 
a more complete decomposition of the vegetable matter in our soil, pass- 
ing it on to the stage that is known as humus, which is a most valuable 
element in our soil. The more humus we have the greater amount of 
moisture we can hold in the ground. This, coupled with the amount of 
moisture that we are able to store, and the improvement of the physical 
condition of the soil by the discing, plowing, and frequent cultivation in 
our Summer Culture brings about three conditions. The better and more 
careful our work is done the more ideal are these conditions. By the very 
tine, compact condition our soil will hold more water, consequently our 
plant is less liable to sufifer from a lack of water during extreme heat. 
This compacted condition is also, from the fact of the more minute pores 
in the soil, favorable to a more rapid movement of moisture by capillary 
attraction, and last, but not least, conducive to a more prolific growth, and 
a more general and uniform distribution of the roots. All three of these 
conditions are exceedingly important in seasons like that of 1901, when 
weeks go by with continuous extreme heat and no rain, and such seasons- 
or conditions always come without warning. 

It is not out of place to here quote again from Professor King's book 
on the soil. Under the heading of physical effects of fallowing, he says: 
"That form of tillage known as fallowing, exerts marked physical and 
chemical effects upon the soil not felt at least with like intensity on lands 
heavily cropped. One of the most marked effects produced by fallowing 
is that exerted upon the water contents of the soil. Not only is the fal- 
lowed ground more moist during the cultivation period, as indeed should 
be expected, but the influence is felt the following spring, and even at the 
end of harvest after the crop has been removed from the ground." 

After some careful observations, he found that in the spring succeed- 
ing a summer fallow after all of the fall, winter, and spring rains, that the 
land which had been fallowed contained in its upper four feet 203 tons per 
acre more water than did that which had been cropped the season before. 
Nor was this all, for at the end of the growing season and after large crops 
of oats and barley had been harvested from the land, there was still a 
difference in the water contents of the upper four feet, amounting to 179 
tons per acre. That the differences here recorded were not due to inherent 
differences in the soil is proven by the water contents of the same lands 
taken at three different times before the fallowing experiments began. 
Here are quoted some remarkable facts with reference to results m 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Majsual. 



37 



increased quantities of moisture, even in the more humid sections of Wis- 
consin. Had these observations been made in the semi-arid belt, with the 
same persistent cultivation as applied by King, the difference would have 
been three or four times the amount noted above. It is a fact, that hold- 
ing the moisture near the surface of the soil during the heated portion of 
the season causes a complete decomposition of the partially decomposed 
vegetable matter which is found in large quantities throughout the sur- 
face soils in the semi-arid west, and passing it on to the stage known as 
humus, thus increasing both the fertility of the soil and its water holding 
capacities. At the close of Professor King's remarks on this subject, he 
says: 

••In very wet climates, or more especially in those which have heavy 
rainfall outside the growing season, so that excessive percolation and loss 
of plant food through drainage is large, summer fallowing in broad fields 
cannot be recommended. But in dry countries where the loss of plant 
food through drainage channels is small, and sometimes practically noth- 
ing, broad field summer fallowing may prove decidedly advantageous, 
because with the deficient rainfall there may not be moisture enough to 
mature a paying crop, and at the same time develop a sufficient store of 
plant food from the native fertility of the soil to meet the demands of the 
next season,' 

In this assertion Prof. King is very modest, but he does bring out 
some very important points which, with us. are vital in the semi-arid belts, 
and mean much in future results. ■ The summer fallow idea in mind by 
Prof. King does not anticipate very much cultivation. While in the sum- 
mer culture, of which we have outlined, we have been able to store the 
waters to a depth of nearly five feet in one season's cultivation, where 
adjoining fields having received ordinary cultivation were practically dry. 
While in South Dakota in '86 and '87, 1 practiced the summer fallow idea as 
referred to by Prof. King, simply plowing in June, turning under a liberal 
growth of weeds and. cultivating the field once afterwards. This field went 
into the winter with very little, if any, more moisture than the adjoining 
fields that had been cropped, and the increased yields both seasons were 
only from ten to twenty per cent., the difficulty being a lack of cultivation or 
effort to retain the moisture throughout the entire season. More cultivation 
is needed in the higher and dryer sections than in Wisconsin. It is my 
opinion, based on practical results and observation of conditions similar to 
those in Western Kansas, that by the summer culture plan, storing the 
water the entire season, and raising crops the following year, much larger 
average crops may be grown than the present average in Iowa or Illinois. 
In fact, we do not believe we overdraw, when we say that in the more arid 
portions of the semi-arid belt by the summer culture plan, only cropping 
every other year, we can raise more wheat in ten years than can be grown 
in the more humid portions of the belt in ten consecutive crops by the 



38 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Cultuke Manual. 



ordinary plan. In this plan we have the advantage of only seeding half the 
land and only harvesting half the land. The great value of work along 
this line lies in grasping fully the idea of storing and conserving the rain- 
waters. It is the all important element, and if water is stored in the soils 
of our western prairies, nature has formed the conditions so perfect and so 
complete to bring this moisture back by (iapillary attraction to feed the 
plants during the dry periods that there can be no possible loss by drought. 
In fact, when the conditions are understood and the necessary labors 
properly applied, records of phenomenal yields will be numerous as far west 
as eastern Colorado. 

The following from E. F. Stevens, of the Crete Nursery, shows the 
value of summer culture, even in the more humid portions of the semi-arid 
belt. He says: "Regarding the possibility of carrying moisture conserved 
one year over into the next season for use for the next crop. We remem- 
ber that one year we grew a crop of seedlings on elevated table lands on a 
part of the divide between the Blue and Salt Creek, just southeast of 
Crete. Seedlings for their best growth require very frequent cultivation. 
They are cultivated weekly and oft times twice a week, to secure the larg- 
est possible growth and the best grade obtainable in a few months. This 
superior culture conserved moisture but we did not so understand it then. 
As a rule a crop of seedlings does not take up all the annual rainfall, so 
quite a portion of this conserved moisture was carried over until the next 
season. The following year on this plat of ground previously devoted to 
seedlings, as above stated, we secured 105 bushels and forty pounds of 
corn jjer acre." 

This marvelous yield referred to by Mr. Stevens is the direct result 
of the careful cultivation which resulted in storing a large surplus 
of moisture, and it is fair and reasonable to conclude that equally as good, 
if not better, results may be gained in any portion of Nebraska, Kansas, or 
western Iowa, and Missouri, by following out the plan of summer culture 
as we have explained under that heading. Another»remarkable instance 
may be mentioned to substantiate these points is that of a piece of corn 
on the Geneva Nursery ground at Geneva, Neb., in 1894, when the corn 
crop of the whole country was swept by the excessive hot winds. This 
piece of corn was grown on ground upon which seedlings had been raised 
for three consecutive years on the same plan referred to by Mr. Stevens. 
By the improved physical condition of the soil and the large amount of 
moisture that was conserved and stored below, both the direct result of 
the frequent cultivation of the seedlings. This piece of ground carried its 
crop of corn over and made over 30 bushels to the acre, when all other corn 
for miles around was entirely ruined. We could add to this many more simi- 
lar statements, but this is sufficient to show that marvelous results may be 
attained in crop yield on these very fertile prairies if the proper cultiva- 
tion is applied. To secure these results the farmers' mind must be clear 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



39 



on three important points, that the ground must be in proper condition 
when all his work is done on the soil, that he must have a good seed or 
root bed, made fine and firm, and abundance of moisture stored below. 

Summer culture previous to seeding- to alfalfa will assure a positive 
and even catch and a fair crop the first season. 

Summer culture for the storing of the rainwaters in the soil, although 
comparatively new as above outlined, is a most important adjunct in farm- 
ing in the west. 

Begin your summer culture as early in the spring as the conditions will 
let you on the ground with your disc harrow. Don't let the weeds grow, 
thinking they are valuable as a fertilizer to turn under. The moisture 
they take from the ground is worth far more to you in growing the next 
crop. 

Raising a crop in a dry season is like doing a credit business in hard 
times. If the business man's bank account is large enough to pull through, 
he is the one who makes the money; so, too, with the farmer, if he has 
moisture enough stored below to carry him through a dry season, he is the 
one who makes the money. 

If the farmer wants to raise the largest yield of corn or potatoes he 
ever had, try a piece of ground summer tilled. This summer culture, or 
the cultivation of a field one entire season, conserving the water and keep- 
ing the weeds out means a surer crop and a bigger crop. Do not give over 
a piece of land to an entire season of cultivation without cropping just to 
give the land a rest, but rather to store the water and improve its general 
physical condition. 



PERCOLATION. 

OR GETTING WATER DOWN INTO THE SOIL. 



There is probably no one question so little understood by the average 
farmer and yet so important as the movement of moisture in the soil. The 
problem of getting the water down into the soil is one of equal importance 
to that of conserving the moisture, which is now quite commonly under- 
stood, and accomplished by the use of the soil mulch or surface cultiva- 
tion. In cut No. 8 we have attempted to illustrate the percolation of water, 
or the getting of water down into the soil. We have divided this cut into 
three sections, numbering them 1, 2, and 3 from left to right, then divided 
these sections into lateral strata A, B, C, and D. In section No. 1, A 
represents the soil mulch, a stratum of light, loose, and dry soil; B repre- 



40 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Cultuke Manual. 



sents a stratum of thoroughly pulverized and firm soil, meaning the por- 
tion that is cut by the plow; C represents about eight inches of the sub- 
soil into which water has percolated; and D represents the portion of sub- 
soil still below that is yet dry. In section 2, we find the mulch has been 
compacted by a heavy fall of rain. This mulch in its loose condition 
readily takes in the water, and as soon as the water reaches the moist soil 
found in strata B and C, it immediately percolates down l)elow, and is 




12 3 
Cut No. S. 



shown by the darker portion of soil in the upper part of stratum D. Here 
the water has come in contact with dry soil, which resists percolation. 
Slowly and steadily by gravity the water finds its way down the columns 
of soil, which, by the w^ay, throughout the entire semi-arid belt are almost 
invaribly found in a perpendicular position. In sections 3, w^e have again 
reproduced our soil mulch by cultivation to stop the evaporation or loss of 
our water from the surface, and we find the moisture below^ has percolated 
on down until the water i>^ all distributed, each little particle taking on its 
film of water to a given thickness w^hich it seems to steadily hold onto 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



41 



while the balance of the free water finds its way on down until it is all dis- 
tributed. The next rain will result the same as is shown in section 2, only 
we have 6, 8, or 12 inches more moist soil for it to pass through before 
reaching the dry soil. 

A little illustration here may make this more clear. In setting out our 
cabbage or tomato plants in the spring of the year when the surface is dry 
and fine we usually water them. Now, in our first application of water to 
this dry surface we notice the water does not seem to percolate, but for a 
little time remains dormant on the surface. After a little it finds its way 
down through the dry particles by force of gravity, leaving each particle 
it passes covered with a thin film of water. Then we apply a second 
application of water while the surface is still moist and we notice 
the water immediately disappears. The reason of non-percolation of the 
first application is because of the resistance of the dry particles to moisture, 
or repulsion for water. The quick movement of the second application of 
water into the ground is the result of the attraction of water for water. 

This is a point of much importance, and buggests a little simple 
experiment that will illustrate this more clearly. Take a piece of glass, or 
a smooth earthen plate and oil it slightly, then put drops of water, a half 
dozen or more on the glass, take a narrow piece of ordinary newspaper, 
about one-half inch wide, let it extend from the thumb and finger about 
two inches, slowly move it down so the end of the paper will come in con- 
tact with a single drop of water. If you notice closely you will see a 
remarkable resistance of the paper against the water. Very soon the little 
pores begin to absorb the water, and the end of the paper becomes moist. 
Now slowly raise the paper and notice how persistently the paper hangs to 
the water. When it lets go there is a quick upward movement, thus 
showing the power of attraction of water for water. Now steadily move 
the fingers down slowly, watching the paper and you will notice when it 
gets close to the water there is a sudden movement down, even while there 
is a little space between the moisture on the paper and the water on the 
glass. The power of attraction is made very perceptible by the quick 
oonnection of the two moist particles. Now draw the paper across the 
glass from one drop to the other, you will notice the water all hangs 
together. You have a string or train of water two or three inches long, 
trailing on behind your paper. 

This illustrates how easy it is to get moisture into the soil by keep- 
ing the surface constantly loose and open, so that as the rain falls it soon 
works its way through the larger pores until it reaches the moist particles 
in the firm soil when it immediately percolates on down below. Here 
again nature has done a great deal for the semi-arid belt. The peculiar 
formation and size of the usual particle of soil is very favorable for perco- 
lation; also for its return upward by capillary attraction to feed the plant 
during our long dry seasons. The movement of this moisture upwards can 



12 



Campbell's 1902 Soil (.'ultukk Manual. 



not be better illustrated than by the movement of the oil up the lamp wick. 
No matter how deep the bowl of the lamp is if the wick reaches the bot- 
tom the blaze continues to burn, not only until the oil is all taken from the 
lamp but until the wick has become quite dry. The same rule or fact ap- 
plies to the growing plant. So long as there is plenty of moisture below it 
will move up through the soil to the plant, keeping it in a perfectly healthy 
condition until the moisture is not only exhausted for several feet down, 
but the soil near the plant has become apparently quite dry. Then the 
plant begins to fade and wither. 

Study well, by close observation, this question of percolation or get- 
ting water into the soil below. It is interesting and of great value. 

The deeper you can store the moisture the greater are your chances 
of securing a large crop. 

A piece of ground that is moist for two or three feet down will take in 
the water of a heavy rain much quicker than ground that is dry. Here 
again is illustrated what moisture will do for us when we understand her 
ways and will try to help ourselves. 



EVAPORATION. 



A thorough understanding of the principles and processes of evapor- 
ation is another thing of great importance to the farmer who lives in the 
semi-arid belt. In fact there is nothing more serious for the farmer than 
the loss of rain water by vapor, the direct result of the sun's heat and the 
hot winds. The remark is common in the semi-arid belt that we do not 
have rain enough, or if we had a little more rain it would be the greatest 
country on earth, or that all we lack is more rain. To all this we take 
exceptions. It is true that if we could always have just rain enough, at 
just the proper time, to enable us to grow mammoth crops without any 
special effort on our part, it would be very nice; but this is not true in any 
part of the country. In the more humid sections of the country crops not 
only suffer at times from extreme drouth, but it is not uncommon that fine 
crops are lost by too much rain after all the processes of growling and har- 
vesting have been successfully carried out. 

The real difficulty in the semi-arid belt is not a lack of rainfall, but 
the loss of too much by evaporation, and this can be largely controlled by 
proper cultivation, at least sufficiently to secure a good growth of crops 
every year. It has been demonstrated b}' careful laboratory and field work 
by Profs. King, Whitney, Hillgard, and others, that 7 inches of rainfall is 
ample to grow a good crop of any kind, providing the water is all utilized 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



43 



Measurements and records by the government weather bureau have shown 
that in the more westerly portions of the semi-arid belt the average rainfall 
is more than twice as much as is needed, while a little farther east it is 
three and four times the necessary amount. 

The usual difficulty, if such we may call it, is the fact that this rain 
does not always come just at the time the plants most need it. This is the 
reason crops have failed and the average investigator or observor of the 
existing conditions in this great belt has drawn the conclusion that there 
is not rain enough. We have lived in this belt of country twenty-two 
years, and have experienced all of the pros and cons, and ups and downs,, 
that the country is heir to. Ten years of this time has been entirely spent 
in the study of the soil, the movement of the moisture in the soil, and that 
all-important question of storing the rain waters. Our experiences in 
these ten years have been quite varied, but each and every year some new 
and important fact has been brought out, all leading to the one conclusion, 
that the rainfall can be stored in the ground and its evaporation prevented 
by a proper manipulation of the soil, thus enabling us to secure, not only 
fair, but remarkably good crops any year. 

The present and most modern methods of irrigation have been the 
result of study along the same lines that we have been working, to wit; 
that of conserving the moisture in the ground by cultivation after once 
thoroughly saturating by turning the waters in from the ditches. The most 
successful farmer today by irrigation, secures better results with one-fourth 
as much water as was used by the average irrigator some years ago. 

The wonderful rapidity with which moisture rises by capillary at- 
traction to the surface and is evaporated is not commonly understood. 
The most favorable condition for this rapid, upward movement of moisture 
is the natural condition found after heavy rains, when the surface soil par- 
ticles are dissolved and settled closely together. Prof. King has conducted 
some very extensive experiments in ascertaining the amount of moisture 
that would evaporate from a square foot of ground in twenty-four hours. 
This work was accomplished by placing a metallic tube one foot square in 
a tank of water so protected that there could be no evaporation or loss of 
water, except through this tube. The tube was five feet long, filled with 
soil from top to bottom, and submerged into the water four feet, so the 
moisture to reach the surface to evaporate had to pass up one foot through 
the soil by capillary attraction. The rate of evaporation for ten consecu- 
tive days was a quart and a half of water to the square foot. The tube 
was then' lifted one foot higher, making it necessary for the moisture to 
rise two feet by capillary attraction when the loss was a little over one 
quart. It was then lifted to three and then four feet, and when rising four 
feet by capillary attraction the loss was a little over a pint to the square 
foot. This shows clearly why our crops may suffer so quickly even aftei" 
we have had considerable rain. 



44 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



The experience of the writer in his own work in 1894, demonstrated 
dearly these two facts: First, that moisture will evaporate very quickly 
when soil is left in its natural condition; second, that a large per cent, of 
moisture can be stored in the ground. In that year there was no rainfall 
in the last of May or the month of J une, and the average field was practi- 
cally dry when the first rain came on July 7. At that time the fields were 
flooded by a rain of 43^ inches which came down quickly. In the fields 
where we were conducting experiments we had previous to this time got 
the moisture down nearly 3 feet, and the surface was in the best condition 
to absorb the fresh rain. In ten days the ordinary field was again practi- 
cally dry. In such fields, owing to the great resistance of the dry soil, 
percolation was very slow and the extreme heat which naturally followed 
quickly evaporated all the water which had fallen. But the field we had 
been carefully cultivating and had i)rei)arfd for just such an emergency, 
was found to have a moist soil over 2i.^ feet deeper than before, or down 
to a depth of 6 feet. 

During the season of 1901 there were many demonstrations of the 
remarkable results following extra work done just at the proper time. A 
farmer near Fairmont cultivated once more after a heavy rain which came 
about the middle of July, after the farmers in that locality had '"laid their 
corn by." This extra cultivation, which could not have cost over 30 cents 
an acre, added 15 bushels per acre to his yield of corn. James Armstrong, 
of Phelps county, double-disced his ground early in the spring, then 
cultivated his corn once more than his neighbors, at a total cost not 
exceeding 60 cents an acre, and got 20 bushels of corn per acre for his 
extra labor. This may seem like an exaggeration, but the comparison was 
made between this field and an adjoining field on his own farm not thus 
treated, as well as a comparison with the crops of his neighbors. Dozens 
of similar illustrations could be given of the immense value of this prin- 
•ciple. If the work is done at the right time results are great. 

Evaporation of the rainw^ater on the great plains country has made 
many a man hopeless and homeless. Prevention of evaporation of the soil 
waters by proper cultivation means better crops, better homes, better 
people, happier children, and a better country. 

Evidence from^ all over the semi-arid west proves conclusively that if 
every farmer had fully understood the theory and principles of conserving 
the soil water by proper cultivation, there would have been no short crop of 
■corn in 1901 in that section of country. The excessive evaporation of the 
rain-water all over the great plains country is the direct and sole cause of a 
greater loss to the farmers of that belt than any other one thing. Educate 
the farmers of the semi-arid belt to store, conserve, and utilize the rain- 
water and we have paved the way for thousands more ideal farm homes 
.and a higher state of prosperity than this belt ever experienced or the 
people anticipated. It is by and through knowledge of certain great 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



45- 



fundamental principles of agriculture, and application of those principles 
to conditions which, exist in this semi-arid belt and no place else in our 
country, that this region is to come into its rightful own and be made 
indeed a veritable garden. 



CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 



The capillary movement of moisture in the soil is a subject not well 
understood, in fact, the average experience of the eastern farmer has not 
demanded any knowledge on this subject, and the early experience of the- 
inhabitants of the semi-arid belt did not call^for thought respecting this 
matter. In short, among the masses of the farmers it is comparatively a 
new proposition. One of the best illustrations to show the real facts in 
connection with the movement of moisture in the soil, is that of glass 
tubes, which we have frequently used in lectures to illustrate this point. 
A tube about one-tenth of an inch in diameter will lift the water about 
three-eighths of an inch above the surface. We have about a dozen, the 
largest a tenth of an inch in diameter, the others smaller, all varying 
in size down to as small a tube as can be drawn in glass, the smallest prob- 
ably about one-hundredth part of an inch. In this the moisture will rise 
about six inches above the surface of the water in which the tube is 
placed. 

The first careful study of the rise of the water by capillary tubes was 
made by Hauxbee nearly two hundred years ago, but history shows that 
the phenomenon was known to Leonardo de Vinci, the famous artist, who 
lived between 1452 and 1519. Notwithstanding the large amount of care- 
ful study which these phenomena have received even during recent years, 
we are yet in the dark as to just how the energy which forces the capillary 
fluids to move is transformed into current motions, but all who have 
studied the matter scientifically are agreed that it is in some way brought 
about through the surface tension of liquids. Capillary movement is some- 
what like electricity. We know its existence, we see its effects and have 
learned something of the various conditions under which its power may be 
utilized. Capillary movement of moisture, like electricity, has its field of 
usefulness, and it is now quite apparent that this force within the soil 
performs a most important ofiice in soil physics. 

Aside from the interest which the intelligent farmer will take in 
this movement as a natural law, it should be thoroughly understood for 
the especial reason that by capillary attraction the stores of water con- 
served in the soil below the root bed are gradually lifted up to the roots, 
as the plants may need the same for their sustenance and growth during a 



46 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



period of drought. It is by the process of first making the soil near the 
surface firm and compact and then subsequently, by frequent cultivation 
as in the Campbell system, holding and storing all the rainwaters in the 
stratum of soil below, so that this wonderful movement of water upward 
by capillary attraction may take place and the growing crops nurtured and 
matured. 

It is by the result of this wonderful movement that we are able to 
go well nigh the western limit of the great prairies of the semi-arid west 
and there store the rainfall deeply in the soil and then have it by this 
power return upward through the pores of the soil to feed the plant dur- 
ing the long dry periods, getting large yields in lieu of the oft-repeated 
failure of the past. When these great points are understood, together 
with the further fact that the loosening and drying of surface soil of a 
sufficient depth will practically check any further upward movement, we 
have a most wonderful condition. By the prox^er preparation of our soil, 
that is, the fining and firming of the portion necessary for the root bed, 
experience has demonstrated that we do increase the power of capillary 
attraction or the more rapid movement of the moisture from below up. In 
this soil condition we have one most favorable to the free and rapid 
development of root growth. Now, if we can comprehend, or be made to 
understand just how many stalks of corn, wheat, barley, or potatoes can be 
supplied by this movement to its full demand per square foot or square 
yard of surface soil, then with our blanket of loose soil spread over the 
surface to prevent any loss of this moisture so that the roots can take it 
all in, we have reached a condition that is most wonderful. These facts, 
when fully comprehended, must and will make of this great semi-arid belt 
the best and most desirable farming country we have in the United 
States. 

That the fining or compacting, or any manner of reducing the spaces 
between the particles of soil does actually increase the movement of 
moisture is very clearly shown by the investigation's of the condition of 
the soil beneath a horse foot track, or where a wagon has passed over a 
plowed or otherwise pulverized field. Where the soil lies somewhat light 
and loose to the eye it is apparently dry. Where the particles have been 
compacted by the weight of the wagon, or the horse, a much larger per 
cent, of moisture is perceptible. Simple facts like these should not be 
passed over without a consideration of what they mean. The wonderful 
uses of which electricity has now reached have been brought about by 
observing even simpler facts and conditions than this. The development 
.of steam power and the vast amount of labor that is performed by it 
today, is the direct result of the simple observation of a boy, who placed a 
• cork in the nose of the tea kettlCj thus stopping the discharge of steam, 
when he soon discovered that the cover would frequently lift up by force 
.of the steam and allow the steam to escape. By holding the cover down 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



47 



iie discovered the power. The simple facts referred to with reference to 
the movement of moisture in the soil have already been proven to mean a 
great deal. 

With the fact that the moisture can be stored in the ground and 
there controlled and made available to the plant by the aid of capillary 
attraction, with such results as have been indicated, what are the possibili- 
ties of this great semi-arid belt? No one who has ever passed over this 
country, or remained in it for any length of time, has ever discovered any 
objections outside of this one fact, that crops and trees have not been suc- 
cessfully grown. All agree that the climate is most magnificent, the soil 
exceedingly fertile and very easy of tillage. The condition of the majority 
of the soil in the eastern states, that is, its composition and formation is 
such as to not be" susceptible to the remarkable effects of capillary move- 
ments of moisture that are shown in the great semi-arid belt. It is 
undoubtedly due to this fact that so little attention has been given to this 
question until recent years. Capillary attraction is known to us and is 
illustrated by sponges. A sponge is moistened, then compressed, until all 
the possible water is pressed out, then drop the corner of the sponge into 
the water, and water is seen to immediately climb up through the entire 
sponge. The finer the sponge, the more quickly is it filled. This is an 
illustration that we used some years ago, which is exceeding clear and 
quite convincing. The lamp wick is another illustration, as the oil is con- 
sumed from the end of the wick, more is at hand, and it gets there by no 
other power than by capillary attraction. 

Study these three points carefully. Percolation, evaporation, and 
•capillary attraction; they will be found more interesting the more the 
reader and investigator understands them, and when fully understood, the 
question of soil culture will be much better appreciated. You will then 
comprehend why the plowing should be reasonably deep and the under 
portion made fine and firm, while the top should be fine, but loose and dry. 



CORN. 



The question of raising corn is one upon which much may be said. 
Back in the eastern states among the hills of New York and New England, 
a large amount of time is given over to the preparation of the soil. Ex- 
perience has taught them that without fertilization crops are light. Barn 
yard manure is used freely, and two, three, or four dollars worth of fertiliz- 
ing per acre is not uncommonly necessary in order to secure good crops. In 
Illinois the soil is more fertile and rain usually ample, so that no fertilizers 



48 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



are required and when the rains are ample and timely two or three ordinary 
cultivations produce a good crop of com. But even there they are begin- 
ning to learn the value of conserving the water by more frequent cultivation, 
because of dry periods that are liable to come at any time. With us in 
the semi-arid belt more attention must be given to the preparation of the 
ground. We cannot depend upon heavy rains to aid us in dissolving and 
settling our soil, consequently we must give close attention to every part 
of the work. The first thing in order is the early discing which should be 
a double discing in order to thoroughly pulverize the surface, bearing in 
mind that every act must be to store and pi ovide the greatest possible 
amount of water in the soil. Early discing covers the two important points 
previously referred to, that of preventing the evaporation and opening up 
the surface to receive the later rains. This done, we simply wait for the 
proper time of further fitting and planting, always being in readiness, how- 
ever, to loosen the surface at any time, should we get a rain of any magnitude. 
There is some diversity of opinion as to whether the check-rower or lister 
is preferable, more particularly in the lower altitudes. We favor the 
lister in the higher altitudes, or in the northern sections, where the nights 
are cooler, which results in heavier stoolingor suckering. These additional 
shoots are very detrimental to the corn crop, especially so, should we have 
a dry season, but for the more humid sections we are not yet fully in favor 
of the lister. 

THE LISTER. 

The lister has one advantage that is especially desirable. By filling 
the furrows about the time the shoots begin to show and thereby covering 
them up we may destroy them completely, which is easily and quite readily 
done. Another advantage in listing in the more arid sections is that of 
getting the roots deeper into the ground. The higher the altitude and the 
drier the atmosphere, the deeper is it necessary to cultivate in order to 
produce a deeper mulch to prevent evaporation. In using the lister on 
ground where the moisture has been carefully preserved by discing and 
harrowing in the early spring it is quite important to follow the lister with 
some tool to thoroughly pulverize the moist soil that is thrown up (as such 
soil immediately assumes a dry and very hard condition which is after- 
wards hard to manage). The best tool for this purpose is the weeder, the 
long, flexible teeth lap down on the side of the furrow or ridge as thrown 
up between the rows and quite completely pulverize the large clods that 
are thrown up by the lister, leaving a perfect circle with a nice fine mulch 
over the entire surface. This puts your ground in magnificent shape, es- 
pecially in the sand loam soils of the semi-arid belt, so that you can con- 
tinue the use of the weeder by going lengthways of the ridges and com- 
pletely destroy the weeds before they assume any size, keeping your mulch 
in perfect condition to prevent evaporation, going over the ground after 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



49 



each rain as in the cultivation of other crops, watching the condition very 
closely in order that you may catch the ground just when slightly moist 
before the crust has begun to form. This does away with the weed cut- 
ting idea. On the Model Farm we continued with the weeder, using no 
other tool, until the suckers were well out. Then with the old style four 
shovel cultivator the soil can be thrown in and then harrowed cross- wise. 
Here again in this cross harrowing the weeder puts in good work, as it 
thoroughly pulverizes the surface if you catch the ground in the proper 
condition and does not injure the corn. After this your ground is practi- 
cally level, and can be cultivated in the same manner you would cultivate 
check row corn, or surface planted. At the Pomeroy Model Farm the 
weeder was used exclusively until the corn was fully fifteen inches high. 

CHECK ROW PLANTING. 

In planting with the check row planter it is important to plow the 
ground as early as possible. Here again, the early discing comes in with 
its all important results to prevent the evaporation, holding your ground 
in perfect condition for rapid percolation of the later rains. This is advis- 
able because you can get onto your ground with the disc when at a proper 
depth to plow it would be too wet. Then again, you can cover the field 
quicker if you have a broad gauged disc than with the plow. It also en- 
ables you to get your soil in much better physical condition, than would be 
possible if the ground was allowed to dry out. The plowing should be fol- 
lowed up soon after, but remember this point, if you have been particu- 
larly persistent in preventing this evaporation by the discing, your ground 
is in perfect condition to plow, even though you have considerable dry 
weather later on in the spring. The soil will roll up in a moist condition, 
and is susceptible to the best results with the packer or any other tool. 
Follow the plow closely with the packer, at least every noon and night, if 
you have one. If not, then use the harrow in the same persistent manner, 
but do not plow as deep by at least tw^o or three inches if vou have no 
packer. Five inches is amply deep to be properly worked down with the 
harrow. After your ground is turned over and the necessary work done 
to pulverize the surface, watch closely the condition. Whenever any rain 
of any magnitude comes, even though it only wets through the mulch or 
loose soil on top, it is necessary to immediately stir it to dry it out. 

The importance of quick work after the surface has been moistened, 
even by a slight rain, is shown in the result of the experiment by Prof. 
King with reference to wetting the surface as quoted under the heading of 
cultivation. In the use of the check row planter the difference in the time 
of germination, the rapidity of the growth of the young plant in ground 
prepared as outlined under the heading of plowing and subpacking, as 
compared with corn put into ground in the ordinary manner of fitting is 



50 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



something wonderf ally attractive. The growth of roots as shown under the 
heading of root development is also interesting. Do not put in too much 
seed. There are unquestionably many instances where very light crops of 
corn have been secured from too much seed, when had there been one half 
as many stalks growing there would have probably been two or three times 
as much corn. I have frequently heard the remark, if you don"t put in the 
seed you can't get the crop, indicating the crop was guaged by the quantity 
of seed, but this is another mistake and is begining to be more generally 
understood. The strongest evidence along this line is found in some 
experimental work w^hich we conducted in 1897, where eight ears of corn 
were raised from one single kernel, four ears growing on the original stock, 
and two each on two suckers or shoots. Seven of these were well devel- 
oped ears, the eighth having corn about half the length of the cob, both 
the upper and lower ends of this cob being bare of corn, 

AMOUNT OF SEED NECESSARY. 

One fact may not be generally known or understood, and that is that 
every healthy corn stalk starts from five to ten ears. Now the develop- 
ment of these ears depends entirely upon the physical condition of the soil 
and an ample supply of available soil moisture and plant food at all times. 
It is true there are instances, or conditions that might exist by which 
more corn might possibly be got from two, three, or four stalks in a hill 
than one. These would be rare cases and where by extreme heat the 
demands upon the supply of moisture and plant food might suddenly 
destroy the vitality, or life of all the ears that were started on the corn, 
except the top one. Then a sudden and liberal rain immediately replen- 
ishing the soil about the roots with the necessary moisture which would 
immediately increase the available supply of plant food and push to com- 
pletion the single ears left on each stalk, when w^e would have two, three 
or four ears to the hill as against one ear if we had but one stalk. 
Then again should the dry period continue longer without any rain we 
might lose all the ears, because the demand for moisture to supply the 
growth and development of two, three, or four stalks would be just that 
much greater than for one stalk, consequently the one stalk could endure 
the drouth longer without suffering, and probably reach the next rain 
when ample moisture would mature one or two good ears as against none 
at all with a larger number of stalks. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROOTS. 

It will be seen from these facts that it is possible to secure as large 
a yield from one kernel in a hill as from three kernels in a hill, and in the 
semi-arid belts much more probable. In cut No, 9, we show a siugle stalk 
of corn and the general direction and development of roots. This illus- 



Campbells 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



51 



tration was made from several careful investigations of the location and 
development of corn roots. In the right hand lower corner you will note 
the figures to 6, each indicating the circle of roots, indicating the first 
development, or from the germination of the kernel of corn, while No. 1 
indicates the second growth of roots, which almost invariably is found to 
run very close to the surface of moisture. The depth of the early cultiva- 
tion of the corn, providing we have no immediate subsequent rains to 





0- SEED ROOTS 

1- FIB5T ROOTS 

2- FIR5T CIRCLE 
3'SECOD ' - 
^-THfRO - •■ 
5-FOURTH ' " 

fc-BR/\cE mors 



Cut No. 9. 



moisten the cultivated portion, largely regulates the location of these roots, 
therefore it is well to go slightly deeper the first time. Xo. 2 indicates the 
third line of roots, which is almost invariably found, although starting 
from the stalk a little higher, to make its way to a lower point beneath the 
line from which roots Xo. 1 seem to feed. These roots although only 
shown in the illustration as being single roots running to the right and 
left as we look at the stalk of corn, vet there is an entire circle around the 



52 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual, 



stalk running in every direction, providing the condition of the ground is 
such as to encourage them. Here one can readily see the importance of 
cultivating as deep the first time as in any previous cultivation, for these 
roots find their way out through the soil in the early stages of the growth 
of the plant. Roots No. 3, which is the second circle of roots, are what is 
properly known as brace roots. These roots like the subsequent roots 4, 
5, and 6, find their course very largely straight down into the soil. They, 
however, convey but a small per cent, of moisture and plant food to the 
corn. This being almost entirely the work of the roots shown by 1 and 2. 




Cut No. 10. 

Here in this illustration can readily be seen the serious results from 
deeper subsequent cultivation, which might result in cutting off many 
roots. We can also see the importance of all work as outlined under the 
various headings referring to the preparation and care of the soil being 
carefully carried out. 

Here in this illustration is represented corn put in with the check 
row planter, the ground plowed fully 7 inches deep, thoroughly pulverized 
and made firm. Now, supposing we have carried out the necessary work 
to have stored and conserved moisture to considerable depth, 5 or 6 feet, 
with our plowed ground thoroughly pulverized and made firm, we have the 
best possible condition, as stated under the head of Sub-Surface Pack- 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Maxu-\l. 



53 



ing, for the three all important conditions which we so frequently men- 
tion. That of holding the greatest possible amount of moisture in the 
soil, a condition to promote the most rapid movement of moisture by capil- 
lary attraction from the sub-soil up into this finely pulverized portion. 
Also a condition most favorable to the development of roots and root hairs 
or feeders. Careful investigation of fields thus prepared after the stalks of 
corn have reached a height of 3 or 4 feet will show almost a perfect net- 
work of these little roots and feeders throughout the entire field. Scarcely 
a spot half an inch square can be found that is not permeated by many of 
these little hair roots seeking the moisture and plant food therefrom. 

With our moisture in ample quantities below, as stated, and this 
perfect condition of soil and development of roots, the growth and devel- 
opment of a magnificent crop of corn now depends entirely upon the time, 
manner and kind of cultivation. It is not absolutely necessary that the 
farmer should have a specially fine toothed cultivator. The Eagle Claw 
Cultivator, that carries four shovels on each side of the row, is probably 
the best in general use. Again we must repeat the importance of watching 
closely the condition of the soil, that as much of the work as possible may 
be done at the time, immediately after a rain when the soil is simply 
moist and the soil grains seem to most readily separate one from the other, 
as in this condition the most perfect and uniformly fine mulch may be pro- 
duced. 

BROAD-GAUGED CULTIVATORS. 

From the fact that it is so extremely important to catch this ground 
at just the proper condition, a condition that does not long exist after a 
rain, it is apparent that cultivators on the broad-gauged plan must be pro- 
duced by our manufacturers. A two or three row machine is very import- 
ant, that we may cultivate two or three times as much ground in the same 
length of time, and when the farmers come to understand the importance 
of rapid work and the demand is made, such tools will be produced, for 
Yankee ingenuity is prevalent in all of our big manufacturing establish- 
ments. Returning to Cut No. 9, and the existing conditions as outlined, if 
the corn is not too thick in the ground, we never have had a season that 
a sufficient amount of moisture could not be held about these roots to pro- 
duce, not only a fair crop, but a remarkably good crop. If the loose mulch 
on top, to a depth of 23^ or 3 inches, is first produced when the conditions 
are just right after a rain, and stirred just often enough during the long 
dry periods, we can practically prevent any loss whatever by evaporation 
from the sarface. This accomplished, the perfect physical condition of our 
soil and complete development of roots will take the moisture from below 
sufficiently fast to prevent practically any damage from extreme drouth, 
and produce a most magnificent crop of corn. 

In Cut No. 10 we show a field of corn grown at Lisbon, N. D., on the 
Soldiers' Home grounds, by Colonel Macllvane in 1897. This was one of 



54 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



the several farms which we had general supervision of on the Northern 
Pacific in '96-'97. Here, by carrying out practically the same conditions 
that I have explained by referring to Cut No, 9, 82 bushels of corn to the 
acre were raised, while the average corn field would not make over 6 to 10 
bushels. Remember this is in North Dakota. Again, in Cut No. 11, we 
show the remarkable contrast between the corn grown on the Pomeroy 
Model Farm and that grown on adjoining fields under the ordinary meth- 
ods of cultivation. 

TIME FOR INVESTIGATION. 

These illustrations, coupled with the facts referred to under the 
heading of Evaporation, where 15 to even 20 bushels was added to the 
yield of a field of corn, where only a small part of the work here referred to 
was carried out, is certainly sufficient evidence to prompt many to make 
even a small test to find out the correctness of these assertions. If they 
are true, then it is folly for men to raise 5, 10, or 20 bushels, when by a 
more careful and thorough plan of cultivation, 40, 50, or 75 bushels might 
be raised. The Good Book says: "He that tilleth his soil shall be satisfied 
with bread, but he that followeth vain ideas shall find poverty enough." I 
think this passage is quite as applicable to the present existing condition 
in this country as it was then in Egypt. 

Plenty of water in the soil makes plenty of corn. 

No after cultivation can make amends for a poor job of fitting the 
soil for crop. 

The deeper you can get the water stored down in the ground before 
planting time the surer are you to get a big crop. 

Cultivate your corn at least once after the last rain. If you don't 
need the water for this crop you may the next. 

Don't get the shallow idea too strongly fixed. Two and a half to 
three inches of fine loose soil is about the best condition. 

Watch the first approach of spring and as soon as you can get into 
the field with your disc, go over your ground intended for corn. Nothing 
can pay better. 

There is no work done, cost considered, that seems to go farther to- 
ward increasing the yield of corn than that of early double discing. 
This is also quite true with reference to all other crops. 

Never allow a crust to form under the mulch no more than you would 
on the surface. It will get there if you don't watch closely during times of 
extreme heat in long dry periods. Don't let weeds grow. Every weed 
means less corn. 

Don't use the old long pointed four-shovel cultivator. To go deep 
enough with this tool, to make good protection for moisture you are sure to 
destroy many roots. The cultivator that leaves the stirred soil the finest 
and loosest and yet level is best. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



55 




Corn from the ^Modle Farm cultivated 
by the Campbell method. 



Corn from adjoining field by the 
ordinary method the same year. 



Cut No. 11. 



56 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



WHEAT. 



In discussing the question of growing wheat it seems almost neces- 
sary to divide it into two headings, winter and spring. 

SPKING WHEAT 

in the northern sections and on ujj into Canada, has become a very import- 
ant crop. In preparing ground for this crof) little attention has been given 
in the past to the all important question of storing and conserving the 
rainwater. It has been simply a question of plowing at any time when the 
farmer was ready to plow, the seeding and harrowing likewise, without 
reference to the condition of the soil, or the storage of water. In the more 
arid yjortions of the wheat belt in the northwest there is no question but 
what summer culture, commonly termed summer fallow, would be found 
exceedingly profitable. While we have thoroughly discussed this question 
under another heading referring especially to that of summer culture, yet 
its work is of such great importance, and the additional expense so little 
compared to results that we cannot resist a repetition. If the work is prop- 
erly done the returns are large. Begin first in the early spring, just as 
soon as the frost is out of the ground, and the soil sufficiently dry to per- 
mit of discing without the soil adhering to the disc, lapping half so as to 
thoroughly pulverize the surface, thus putting your ground in condition 
to prevent evaporation, as well as to admit of the rapid percolation of the 
early rains, you will be surprised at results. Then keep the surface har- 
rowed or loosened by the use of some tool to the depth of at least two 
inches, plowing in June or July, the time when other work is least press- 
ing, to a depth of G or 7 inches, following the plow closely with the sub- 
surface packer and let the packer be followed closely with the harrow, 
keeping in mind that all-important point of working the soil when it is in 
the best condition to most thoroughly pulverize, continuing this surface 
cultivation after the plowing through the entire season. In this work 
again the Acme harrow is most desirable because each time over it brings 
the soil from below up and to a large extent turns the soil from the ex- 
treme surface to the bottom of the portion stirred by the Acme. In this 
kind of work in the northwest, as well as in any portion of the semi-arid 
belt, it is very important to do this surface cultivating, whether it be with 
the common harrow or the Acme harrow, spring tooth or disc, at a time 
when the soil is in the best possible condition; that is, simply moist, not 
dry or wet: Then you have a fine even soil mulch composed of minute 
lumps, a condition you cannot get if the soil is dry or wet. It is when soil 
is in this condition that the particles seem most readily to separate, not 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



57 



simply into dust but these minute lumps made from slightly moist soil 
when dry will never blow. 

Having had 15 years experience in the northwest I am well aware of 
this blowing difficulty on the lighter soils, which can be entirely prevented 
by care with reference to the condition of the soil as above stated. It is 
very desirable in following this plan to keep the weeds entirely clean from 
the field. Don't for a moment harbor the idea that weeds are valuable to 
turn under, for there is so little value to them that it is not worthy of con- 
sideration, but the water drawn out of the soil by these weeds while grow- 
ing is far more valuable to the coming crop. Watch it carefully. In the 
springtime try to catch this gronnd as early as possible with the harrow, 
Acme preferred, and put in your seed, not to exceed one-half bushel to the 
acre. This quantity is ample. When the wheat begins to stool or send 
out the additional shoots go over your ground with the weeder to again 
loosen the surface to prevent evaporation, as well as to destroy the few 
weeds that may then make their appearance. The long flexible teeth of 
the weeder will ngt destroy the grain when at this stage of growth, but will 
kill the young tender weeds. Then await results. If you have followed 
the plan fully you are simply sure of a big crop. In raising spring wheat 
continuously without the summer culture plan the same question with 
reference to storing and conserving the water should be constantly kept 
in mind. 

If you will give close attention to this point you will simply be 
astonished at the results obtained. When a crop has been taken off, get 
onto this ground as quickly as possible with the disc harrow. Double 
discing is exceedingly valuable. The small size disc 14 or 15 inch, set at a 
good angle will quite thoroughly pulverize the ground, but with the larger 
disc it is impossible to get a good condition without double discing. 
Remember that the object is to thoroughly pulverize the surface two or 
three inches, to not only prevent the loss of any moisture we may have 
below, but to have the ground in the best possible condition on the surface 
for the rapid percolation, or getting of the rain waters down into the soil. 
Lose no time after any rain in again loosening the surface, (especially upon 
any ground that you may have already plowed). After the discing, plow 
and pack and harrow, as stated with reference to summer culture. Should 
you get any heavy rains late in the fall lose no time in loosening the sur- 
face to save the water, for you may need it the following year. When 
spring time comes get over your ground as quickly as possible with the 
harrow, aiming if possible to do this before the surface gets dry, put in 
your seed, not too thick, and await its developments when it reaches the 
stooling point, which" it will do early in the season if your ground is in the 
condition that such work as outlined above will make it, and you have 
been careful in conserving the moisture. At this point of growth, that is 
when the wheat is begining to stool or sucker, go over your ground with a 



58 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



long toothed weeder. This will loosen the surface and destroy the weeds. 
The cheeking of evaporation by this cultivation will urge on your wheat 
when it will soon cover the ground then the danger of evaporation is much 
less. 

Don't think for a moment that you can get this rapid growth and 
early heavy stooling of the wheat unless your ground is thoroughly fined 
and firmed and you have held the moisture below, forming a seed bed in 
which there will be a rapid development of strong roots which is the direct 
result of prolific stooling. The use of the weeder or harrow, on wheat after 
it has begun to stool, or is three or four inches high, when your ground is 
loose and porous where the roots should grow is not always a safe proposi- 
tion. The root development is so light that much of the w^heat may be 
easily pulled up and destroyed. Keep in mind three important points, a 
finely pulverized and firm root bed, abundance of water conserved, and the 
loose mulch to prevent evaporation, then don't worry about results. 

. WINTER WHEAT 

is a little different proposition from the spring wheat. Here again we 
believe when the farmer in the winter wheat belt has learned the value of 
summer culture and how it will not only greatly increase the average yield, 
but make a failure so far as drouth is concerned an impossibility, a larger 
acreage will be thus treated. Especially in the more arid portions. In 
sections where wheat is grown exclusively and continuously care in the 
preparation of the seed bed, and the storing and conserving of the rain 
waters is the foundation of success. The experience on the Pomeroy Model 
Farm, and our results there, certainly carry very strong evidence as to the 
value of this class of work, where by this very thorough and careful 
fitting of the soil, having plowed about seven inches deep, followed our 
plow closely with the sub-surface packer, and the packer with the Acme 
harrow, going over our fields immediately after the heavy rains or as soon 
as the soil w^as suflBciently dry to permit it, we had formed a fine, firm and 
very moist seed bed. Under these conditions twelve quarts of seed was 
found to be ample. Its germination was so quick and the rapid develop- 
ment of roots brought about by the very favorable physical condition of 
the soil caused the liberal stooling, and in thirty days after seeding our 
ground was nearly or quite covered with the wheat. The immediate 
discing after the winter wheat crop is removed is of very great importance; 
as we have repeatedly said, it is of two-fold value, as it prevents the loss 
by evaporation of any moisture in the soil, and puts the surface in the best 
possible condition for the rapid percolation of later rainwaters. The plow- 
ing may be done a little later, and to get the best results a good depth of 
plowing is necessary, and then the plow should be follow^ed with the sub- 
surface packer. Mark you, we are after a condition that will not only 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



enable us to get the best possible results, but prevent the serious damage 
by drought and assure good crops annually, which means prosperity in its 
highest degree. A fine, firm seed bed. or root bed, has many advantages 
over the coarse, loose condition. In the first place one-third of the seed 
only is necessary. In the next place the growth and development of the 
plant is much more rapid and will soon cover the surface. In the third 
place the development of roots is much greater, we are able to draw 
moisture and plant food from a much larger percentage of the soil, and 
last, but not least, we have a condition of soil that will hold a much greater 
per cent, of moisture as well as one having a greater power of capillary 
attraction, enabling us to keep up the supply of moisture w^hich w^e draw^ 
from below where, by careful work, much of the rainw^aters are stored, 
that under ordinary conditions would have been lost by evaporation or 
run off. 

The plan of raising wheat by plowing every third or fourth year and 
simply using a disc for two or three consecutive years, or even reducing 
the cost still farther of putting in the crop by using a disc drill, is alto- 
gether w^rong. While it is not at all surprising that many farmers resort 
to this in lieu of simply plowing three or four inches deep, leaving the 
plowing without even harrowing, laying up light and loose, full of cavities, 
a condition that could scarcely produce anything but weeds in an ordin- 
arily dry season. Yet it seems like folly for a man to so prepare his ground 
that nothing but a very favorable season could give him even a fair crop, 
when with a little additional work, following out the general principles 
involved, as above explained, he is able to so materially increase the yield, 
as well as to guard against a failure. No farmer should be content to call 
20 bushels of wheat a good crop. Our prairies of the semi-arid belt are 
capable of producing 10 and 50 bushels, with the conditions nature has 
provided. It simply remains for man to till the soil properly. 

The necessary quantity of seed per acre depends upon the manner 
you have fitted your ground. In a fine, firm seed bed, with due care to 
conserving moisture, 20 lbs. of wheat is ample seed. 

If you have simply done as little work as possible, then you should 
add about 60 lbs. more as a sort of a jack-pot, for in such kind of fitting it 
is a gambling proposition, pure and simple. 

If you have your seed bed firm and fine and do not believe in har- 
rowing your wheat, just try a little and note results. If you have a weeder, 
or can borrow one. then be sure to try a good piece. In using the harrow 
or weeder, always, if possible, catch the ground as soon after a rain as you 
can get onto it and not have the soil stick to the teeth. There is big 
money in such investments. 



60 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



RAISING TREES. 



There is no question that is worthy of more consideration so far as 
the comfort and happiness of a family is concerned which resides on the 
farm than that of growing trees. There is nothing more dehghtful after a 
noon day meal in mid-summer than to quietly recline in a hammock in the 
shade of a large elm, but this to the average resident of the semi-arid belt 
for several years has seemed an utter impossibility. There is nothing more 
easy, or more simple. The experience at the Pomeroy Model Farm during 
the past two years quite clearly demonstrates this fact. The piece of land 
selected for the buildings around which a large number of shade and orna- 
mental trees were set, and for the orchard is on a high divide overlooking 
the town with quite a considerable south slope. The south slojje is much 
more unfavorable than the north, as it gets the rays of the sun more directly 
and catches the force of the south winds during the extreme heated por- 
tion of the season; but this south slope was purposely selected that visi- 
itors might see that what could be done under such conditions might be 
done at any point. For the most successful growing of trees or orchard a 
northeast slope should be selected as most favorable. The ground for our 
trees was first double-diced early in March, 1900, plowed in April about 8 
inches deep, the plow followed by the sub-surface packer, and the packer 
with the Acme harrow. The ground was then laid out by using the check 
chain of a corn planter. A small stake 6 inches long was set for each tree 
or shrub, and 964 of these stakes were thus set. When the trees were re- 
ceived from the nursery a deep trench was dug and all trees heeled in with 
tops pointing north. Care was taken to keep the roots from the air, and 
what is most important, to keep them moist. When taken from the boxes 
they were quickly covered with dirt and water turned on. A kerosene bar- 
rel was sawed in two parts, each half barrel was filled about two-thirds 
full of water, and sufficient dirt was added to form a thick solution of mud. 
Then the trees were taken from the trench, when the workmen were ready 
to engage in the actual work of setting the trees, and they were put into 
this solution one by one, and enough mud adhered to the roots to keep 
them protected from the air and sun while being handled during the pro- 
cess of setting. 

Two boards 4 feet long by 6 inches wide were provided with a notch 
in the centgr and a notch at each end, both boards being cut exactly alike. 
The man who dug the holes used one of the boards, and placing the center 
notch on the stake pulled the stake and set it m one of the end notches and 
added another stake in the other end notch. He then removed the board 
and dug the hole. In digging the hole the tree was examined to note the 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual, 



61 



size and shape of root and hole dug sufficiently large to allow spreading- 
all the roots out their full length and no more. The man who directed the 
tree setting carried the second notched board and after the hole was com- 
pleted he placed the board on the two stakes, and dropping his tree into 
the hole brought the body to the middle notch, thus holding it exactly 
where the original stake had been set. 

In setting the tree a helper using a hoe pulverized the dirt that was 
still fresh and moist, hauling it to the roots as fast as a man could place it 
with his hands and by the aid of a trowel. Great care was taken to work 
the soil into and about the roots. When sufficient dirt was in to cover the 
roots a quart of water was turned in. By vibrating the tree slightly the 
water soon percolated through the moist soil, dissolving the particles and 
settling them closely around the roots. The holes were then filled within 




Tlie Acme Pulverizing- Harrow. 



two inches of the top, and then tramped firmly. Then about three inches 
of loose dirt was scattered over this packed soil and the tree left. This 
plan was so successful that in the spring of 1 901 we were obliged to reset 
only 17 trees, less than 2 per cent., the trees all having made a very fair 
growth the first year. The expense of caring for these trees in 1900 out- 
side of the trimming, but including all other work and cultivation, 
amounted to $22.00, or about $2.25 an acre. 

The plan of operation was immediately after setting the trees to 
double disc the entire surface, because the hauling of the wagons and 
tramping of the men over the moist soil while setting the trees resulted in 
packing the ground considerably. A two-horse disc was used for this 
work, which enabled us to get very close to the tree. As soon as a rain of 
any magnitude had fallen, the ground was gone over with the Acme pul- 
verizing harrow, crossing the work done with the disc. This harrow is a 
tool pretty generally known, and a most valuable implement for this class 



62 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



of work. No weeds were allowed to grow. About two and a half inches 
of the surface was kept constantly loose and fine by the use of the Acme 
until July, when a second double discing was applied. The object of this 
occasional discing was to cut deeper to prevent even the slightest degree of 
crusting beneath the mulch. Then the Acme was used, going at right 
angles each time with the previous cultivation until September 1st. Up 
to this time we had been inclined to follow the ideas of most orchard and 
tree men and horticulturists, which was to discontinue cultivation after 
August, the object being to check the growth of the tree and allow the 
new wood to mature before freezing time. This idea presumedly is correct 
in the more humid portions of our country. But in the semi-arid section 
we are inclined to discredit this theory in its full extent. We believe the 
cultivation should be continued, but less frequent. We must not lose too 
much of the moisture from around the main roots and their branches, if 
we would carry our trees safely through the winter. This question is a 
nice one and must be treated with care. It is proper to reduce the sap in 
the body and limbs slightly, but there is danger in going into the winter 
with soil too dry about the roots. Much attention has been given to this 
point by most of our agricultural colleges the past four or five years. 

From Bulletin No. 52, issued by the University of Illinois in 1898, 
we take the following. We quote it especially because it corresponds to 
our own experience and is the result of several years of observation: 

"Throughout large sections of Illinois may be found the rotting 
remnants of once extensive orchards, representing large original expen- 
ditures of both labor and money. The frequency with which such locali- 
ties are met would almost seem to justify the statement usually heard in 
the neighborhood where such worn out orchards are found that the soil is 
not fitted for the growing of fruit. On the other hand the enormous apple 
and other fruit production in other parts of the state, and frequently in 
localities not far distant from those mentioned, makes it evident that the 
reason so often assigned cannot be the correct one. 

' On examination and inquiry it will be found to be almost invaribly 
the case that the true cause for the failure or the dying out of an orchard 
is the lack of proficient, or the entire absence of proper cultivation and 
care. While the Illinois agriculturist has been devoting his time and 
attention to the care of his field and garden crop, it is too often the case 
that the orchard has been left to care for itself, with the above mentioned 
result. The commonest cause of failure in orchards in Illinois may be 
traced direct to the ill effects of summer droughts, though perhaps it is 
more commonly referred to freezing in winter. The connection really 
existing between these two destructive agencies has not been often recog- 
nized. The fact that certain varieties of apples usually accounted hardy 
even to our most northern limits, and in exposed situations sometimes fail 
after a winter not noted for severity, has at different times attracted atten- 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



63 



tion. but the significance of such faihires does not seem to have been duly 
appreciated. On consulting the records it is found that orchard injuries 
and exceptionallv severe winters do not coincide. The autumnal condition 
of the trees clearly has to do with the results, and this again depends upon 
the developments of the growing trees. One of the worst things that can 




Cut No. 12. 

happen to trees is the failure of a sufficient supply of soil moisture. A 
continuous supply of water is essential to all the vital processes of vegeta- 
tion. Apple trees severely suffer when not so supplied." 

The bulletin continues al considerable length along' this line, and 
then presents two very striking cuts, on pages 126 and 127. One showing 



64 



Campbell s 1802 Soil Culture Manual. 




Cut No. 13. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



65 



the orchard upon the college farm, with trees hanging full of fruit, the 
other of an adjoining farm with neglected trees uncultivated bare of fruit 
and almost minus of foliage, and the bulletin winds up by referring to the 
two cuts in the following manner, to-wit: 

"The photographs were taken in September, 1 897. The tree in the 
foreground of the college orchard, with its wealth of foliage and bending 
under the weight of its load of fruit, tells its own story, a d stands forth 
in marked contrast to the preceding picture, which is bare of fruit and 
almost minus of foliage. From the contrast there can be but one conclu- 
sion drawn, that while other things have greater or less effect upon an 
orchard's health and condition, the prime requisite to successful orchard- 
ing in Illinois is thorough and systematic cultivation." 

While the principles involved in the Illinois bulletin are important and 
valuable in that state, they are vital with us in the semi-arid section. The 
prevailing idea, and the idea usujilly drawn from most of our articles, is that 
the work is too expensive to make orchard growing profitable in the more arid 
portions of this country. This is quite an error, fully demonstrated by the 
figures given on our own work on the orchard of the Pom^roy Model P^arm 
in 1900. 

In cut No. 12 may be seen a peach tree grown on the Pomeroy Model 
Farm orchard, from a photograph taken in the fall after the first year's 
growth. These trees were all cut back to about three feet when they were 
set, and all limbs cut back so as to leave about two buds on each. Cut 
No, 13 illustrates one of the same trees August 23, 1901, on its second year's 
growth. The contrast is so remarkable that it may be taken as sufficient 
proof that trees may be grown in the more arid portions of Kansas without 
irrigation, and what is true there is equally true in other portions of the 
semi-arid belt. The body of the tree shown in cut No. 12, at the close of 
the first year's growth, measured a little over one inch in diameter, while 
the body of this tree as shown in cut No. 13 at the close of the second 
year's growth measured 2% inches. As the man standing by the tree 
measured 6 feet, 3 inches, to the top of his hat, the reader may get some 
idea of the remarkable growth of these trees. There is no reason why they 
should not have made this remarkable growth, for, although we experi- 
enced a continuous dry period with the excessive heat of 100 degrees and 
above for 43 days, from June 18 to August 1, entirely without rain; yet 
during that entire time the ground was amply moist to make into balls 
about the roots of the trees, and to a depth of over 10 feet. During this 
entire time, owing to the manner of cultivation and the care taken to save 
the moisture, this soil was practically as full of moisture about the roots 
of the trees as it could hold, and had there been previous irrigation from a 
ditch the soil could not have been more moist. 

In cut No. 14, is shown a white elm tree. Looking closely you can see 
the man's hand about four feet from the ground, grasping the pole which 




Cut No. 14. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual, 



67 



is ten feet high. At this point where the hand shows, the tree was cut off 
when set in the spring of 1900. The growth during 1900 was not much, 
though quite as much as might be expected the first year, the new limbs 
averaging about ten inches. This photograph was taken August 23, 1901, 
when the tree reached within eight inches of the top of the ten-foot pole. 
October 1st, thirty-eight days later, this tree stood two inches above the 
top of the pole. Elms are usually considered slow growth. This illustra- 
tion is certainly a demonstration of two facts, that they will make remark- 
able growth with plenty of moisture, and that moisture can be stored in. 
sufficient quantities on the far western prairies to supply all necessary 
needs of such trees. 

In the setting of trees or orchards in the more arid portions of this 
belt, care should be taken not to get them too close together. A success- 
ful growing of a tree depends upon ample pasturage of the root. In our 
orchard at the Model Farm we set our cherries and peach trees 22 feet 
each way, and our apples 22 by 32 feet. No crop of any kind or nature 
should be grown in an orchard if you would secure the best results. It 
may seem like a waste of ground to see little two-year old trees standing 
V/2 to 3 feet high, with tops only 1 foot to 18 inches broad, 22 feet apart 
each way; but when we note the immense growth of our trees the second 
year we see it is not long before the entire space is utilized. Back of our 
house where we live in Holdrege, Nebraska, is a cherry tree that now 
measures 17^^ feet across from tip to tip of limbs. You can readily see 
that in the 22-foot distances we only have feet left. Now if you expect the 
trees to make this growth you must not interfere with the roots of the tree, 
or in any way rob it of any of the moisture or plant food in the soil. Besides, 
to plant a crop of any kind would make the cultivation much more inconven- 
ient and expensive. A trip back to the old eastern states, even in Illinois, 
and then on through Ohio and New York state, will disclose a radical change 
in methods of handling orchards. The most profitable orchards in those 
states, to-day, have no crops or grasses growing in them; while twenty years 
ago it was a common practice to seed them down to grasses. If that kind 
of treatment is desirable and profitable in the east where the rainfall is 
more than abundant, it is much more desirable in the west. 

To more clearly bring out the marked contrast between ordinary care 
and cultivation of orchards we secured cuts Nos. 15, 16, and 17 through the 
kindness of Prof. Hillgard, of the California Agricultural College. Cut No. 
15 represents a prune orchard in California that has received good care 
and cultivation, trees are perfectly healthy and carrying a heavy crop of 
fine well developed prunes. Cut No. 16 represents another prune orchard 
adjoining No. 15 and separated only by a public highway. This orchard was 
carelessly cultivated, as is common with men who know nothing of the 
principles of storing water in the soil by cultivation, and is reported to 
have remarked to the owner of No. 15 that it was a waste of time and 



68 Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Ma2<ual. 



money to cultivate so often, that if it was a year for prunes he would get 
prunes, if it was not then he would not be out much expense. The only 
difference in the two orchards this particular season was the time and 
manner of cultivation. Immagine the surprise of the owner of orchard No. 




Cut No. 15. 



16 when harvest time came. In cut No. 17 is shown a like contrast in the 
size and quality of the fruit as each orchard has its representative pile of 
fruit. The difference in the quantity of yield was much greater than is 
shown in the size. These three cuts are given to show results of actual 
tests with reference to storing and conserving the natural rain waters in 



Campbell's 1902 Soil C/ULture Manual. 



69 



the soil by proper cultivation, and its effect upon the growth and develop- 
ment of the trees and their fruitfulness. The contrast in results here are 
no more marked than they are in cuts 12 and 13 representing a single years 
growth of our peach trees, but they not only substantiate our claims as to 




Cut No. 16. 



the cause of this marvelous growth on the Pomeroy Model Farm but that 
the same results may be looked for in fruit when our trees reach the proper 
age. What is true in orchards is equaly true in the raising of all kinds of 
grains and vegetables, it is the simple question of ample supply of available 
water at all times during the growing season. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



71 



SFRAYINa FOB THE CODLING MOTH 



In Southern Nebraska, the codling moth may be expected to come 
forth and deposit its eggs from the first brood, between the 10th to the 20th 
of May. Some few belated moths that have hibernated in cool locations 
may come later. Under favorable conditions some may come earlier. As 
a rule they do not come forth until a number of days after the apple 
orchard is in bloom. It requires a considerable amount of warmth to 
tempt them from their hiding places. Their eggs may be deposited on the 
foliage or on the fruit itself. The eggs usually hatch in about eight days- 
As soon as hatched these minute larvae hasten to get under cover, or out 
of sight. Instinct leads them to get inside the apples as soon as possible. 

Some careful observers estimate that 80 per cent, of the larvae 
that enter the apple select the base of the calyx. It is on the possible 
chance of placing poison in the calyx of the apple before the larvae selects 
that as a hiding place, that our present method of combating the codling 
moth is founded. The orchardist attempts to spray before the calyx closes 
so that particles of poison may be deposited in the calyx not only before 
the larvae selects that point for entrance, but before the calyx is so tightly 
closed as to make it unlikely that the poisonous spray will be lodged 
therein. 

There is no advantage in spraying while the trees are in blossom, 
since that is quite a number of days in advance of the appearance of the 
larvae. Spraying at that time is also dangerous to bees; and the man who 
cares nothing about his own or his neighbor's bees should also remember 
that if followed by a rain the poison would almost certainly be washed out, 
and, also that the poison used is believed to be detrimental to the delicate 
stamens and pistils of the blossoms. On the other hand, should heavy rains 
or press of work delay spraying until the calyx is tightly closed or until 
the apple turns downward, the poisonous spray is not likely to be lodged 
in the calyx. 

Should the orchardist fail to destroy the major portion of the first 
brood of the larvae, his next method of attack is to trap the larvae when 
they hide. This effort should be made from the middle of June until the 
middle of July. 

In the last five years many orchardists have remarked that they did 
not see enough difference between orchards sprayed and those not sprayed 
to justify the trouble. Many made no effort to spray, and some years found 
their fruit reasonably free from worms. This varying experience may be 
accounted for by the fact that the close attention to details required in 
successful work has not always been given. Successful work requires a 



72 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



suitable puaip and apparatus. A selection of some insecticide of known 
strength. 

Many of our orchardists are now using arsenical preparations, that 
is, Pnris green. London purple, green arsenoid, or white arsenic combined 
with salsoda, with a Bordeaux mixture. The lime in the Bordeaux mix- 
ture assists in guarding the foliage from being burned by the arsenic. 

Should the orchard be infested with the tent caterpillar or canker 
wwm, spraying for the codling moth destroys all of the leaf-eating insects 
that happen to be at work at I he same time. Since the codling moth do 
not all come forth at the same time, there is a variation in the number of 
apples in bloom, and in condition of the apple to be protected. It is there- 
fore considered wi.se to spray the second time about ten days after the first 
spraying. .After this f-econd spraying in May it is an open question 
whether spraying against the codling moth in June has much value. 
The orchaid st resorts to other methods which may be discussed later. 
The varying results secured in the attempt to destroy the larvae of the 
codling moth may be due to lack of knowledge, and suitable preparation, 
care and methods. Perhaps some suggestions may be useful: 

First, it is well to have a suitable pump and nozzle. The metal parts 
of the pump that come in contact with the solution should be brass. Our 
old pump operrited by horse power troubled us a good deal for lack or this 
necessary feaiure. It required repacking frequently, and we had a good 
deal of t ouble with it to keep it in order. The pump we are using this 
year has its working parts which come in contact with the poison, made of 
brass. Having a large amount of spraying, we will, as we have for many 
years, use a two-hor.se power pump. The pump should have a good agita- 
tor, one that will keep the contents of the barrel continually stirred, that 
the liquid may be even in quality, otherwise the portion in the top of the 
barrel or tank will be weak, that in the lower part have such an excess of 
arsenic as will burn the foliage. Ihe pump must have great force or 
power. The liquid must be applied as a fine mist. A fine mist will cover 
and remain attached to everything with which it comes in contact. 

Most orchardists now endeavor to accomplish as n)uch as possible 
with one spraying. The Bordeaux mixture combats possible fungus 
spores. The poison intended for the larvae of the codling moth also de- 
stroys leaf-eating insects in addition to destroying many of the larvae of 
the codling moth. Thus three lines of work are accomplished with one 
effort. Should the Bordeaux mixture be omitted, it is wise to use lime in 
the proportion of at least two pounds of lime to each pound of Paris 
green, London purple, or green arsenoid. More lime can do no more harm 
than the difficulty of passing a large amount of lime through the nozzle. 

To secure a fine mist the spray must be broken up very fine. If the 
lime is improperly slacked small particles may be left in the solution, 
which are likely to clog the nozzle. It is also well to be careful not to dis- 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



73 



solve the sulphate of copper in a coarse sack. To dissolve the sulphate it 
should be suspended in a bag composed of cloth that will not shed lint. 
It will dissolve more quickly in hot water. A stock solution may be made. 
That is, where ten kerosene barrels of water are to be used, forty pounds 
of the sulphate may be dissolved at one time. One-tenth by measure, may 
be taken for each barrel of water. This amount may be used for each 
fifty gallons of the Bordeaux mixture. The lime must always be slacked 
separately. 

To secure the most complete slacking of the lime, it is well to use 
the plan followed by masons in preparing for hard finish, using enough 
water so the lime is at all times covered with the water and kept from the 
air. This would mean about twenty-four quarts of water to be used in 
slacking four pounds of lime. After slacking, it would be well to run it 
through a line copper seive, stirred to remove all the coarser particles 
which would clog the nozzle. 

The sulphate of copper and the lime should be mixed only a barrel 
or a tankful at a time, since some chemical change takes place in a short 
time rendering it less effective. In mixing the Paris green, London purple, 
or green arsenoid, the proper amount of poison should be put in a bowl 
and a little water added, then stir and gradually add water until you final- 
ly have a thin paste. Add this to the Bordeaux mixture last of all since 
it has a tendency to settle in the bottom of the barrel or tank. 

It is important that the tank or barrel should be tight. It would be 
found disagreeable to be wet or slopped either with strong arsenical poisons 
or Bordeaux mixture. It should be carefully remembered that the opera- 
tor is handling very strong poison and he should guard himself during the 
use of it as carefully as possible. The operator will find it much easier to 
spray with the wind than against it and that it is more convenient if 
possible to spray when there is little wind. The operator should also re- 
member that if heavy rains follow soon after spraying, the work is lost. 

With a horse power machine the expense for labor in spraying per 
acre does not exceed 60 cents. With us the cost of poison for the season, using 
both Bordeaux mixture and green arsenoid is estimated on 80 acres at 
about $80.00, or not more than $1.00 per acre. This does not reckon the 
cost of wear and tear of machinery. We would regard it as wise to supple- 
ment the work of spraying by efforts to trap the larvae which escape the 
poison from spraying. The larva after attaining its growth in the apple 
either falls to the ground with the apple and then seeks some hiding place 
to pupate or if the apple remains on the tree, leaving the apple crawls 
down the branch and limbs seeking some possible shelter from the birds. 
Should it find a loose scale of rough bark it may hide under this. Making 
use of this instinct of the larvae to get under cover as quickly as possible, 
many orchardists have found very beneficial results in banding the trunk 
of the tree with burlap or heavy paper, this in strips 8-10 inches in width 



74 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



tacked on furnishes a shelter under which the larvae whether coming 
down or crawling up the tree find shelter from the birds. The larvae re- 
mains sheltered here during the period of pupating. Examining these 
bands once in seven or eight days, the orchardist destroys either by crush- 
ing or by throwing the bands into hot water and then replacing the bands. 
This work should be begun as early as the 15th of June and continued 
until the first of September. The successive broods of the codling moth 
overlap one another. In Nebraska and Kansas we always have at least 
two broods and these broods overlap one another in such manner that it is 
necessary to be on guard against them from the middle of June until the 
first of September. 

The early summer apples are more likely to escape than the late 
winter, because it seems easier to destroy the largest portion of the first 
brood than to hold sufiiciently in check by spraying the second brood. 
This makes the supplementary work of trapping the larvae by banding 
the tree, a decided help in the work of combating the codling moth. Those 
who are particularly interested in the work which has been done by the 
members of the State Horticultural Society in the work of holding the 
codling moth in check should read recent reports giving an accurate ac- 
count of the codling moths destroyed at each catch, and during the entire 
season by orchardists who have followed this method and taken the time 
to count and report results secured. 

These may be secured by addressing the Secretary of the State 
Board of Horticulture of Denver. 

E. F. Stevens. 

THE PRUNING OF FRUIT TREES UNDER SEMI-ARID 
CONDITIONS. 

My early training was secured in the State of Maine where it was 
considered good form to open out the head of the tree to let in the sun and 
to grow trees with high bodies that a horse might drive under them. 

Under the climatic conditions in that state trees may live to be 75 
to ]00 years of age. At a later period living in California other condi- 
tions were met. Different methods of pruning adapted to their conditions 
had to be studied. Located 30 years in Nebraska we find conditions dif- 
fering from either; that the pruning adapted to New England or California 
is not suited to the semi-arid belt, and methods considered good form in 
the extreme eastern counties of our state are not suited to the semi-arid 
conditions of western Nebraska and Kansas. 

Under semi-arid conditions we can not expect trees to be as long 
lived as in New Englg,nd. Our effort should be to bring trees into bearing 
at an early age and to secure the best possible results during the first 20 or 
25 years bt the life of the tree. We may hetve destructive hail storms. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



75" 



We have the rapid evaporation incident to many sunny days of the heated 
periods of mid-summer and not infrequently of parching dry winds. We 
may have late spring frosts. To guard against hail, head the trees very 
low within 12 to 18 inches of the ground. If the trunk can be protected 
by the head of the tree no matter how seriously the limbs of the tree may 
have been damaged by hail, a new tree can be grown from the sound trunk. 

Mr. J. W. Hogg, one of the most successful growers of the apple in 
western Nebraska, prefers to head his apple trees to within 12 inches of 
the ground for the reasons above suggested. This gentleman grew some- 
thing more than 1200 bushels of apples during the season of 1901 and 
quantities of other varieties of fruits. We must also guard against sun 
scald which is liable to damage the bark on the south and west sides of 
the trunk of the tree, and thus invite the attack of the fiat headed borer. 
If in planting we set the best branched side of the tree toward the south, 
and grow the tree with a spreading head with an abundance of foliage, the 
tree soon shelters itself against sun-scald. It is not considered good form 
to open up the head of the tree since that would lead to sun-scald of the 
principal branches and limbs. It will also be noted that following light 
hail the fruit in the interior of the tree often times escapes when that on 
the outer branches is damaged. We think it is also true that during the 
frosty nights of late spring the temperature may fail 4 to 6 degrees below 
freezing point and yet when shaded from the first rays of the morning sun 
the temperature rising and the frost being drawn out slowly, the fruit is 
not destroyed. Our habit is to head the apple tree in such form that 
when loaded with a full crop the lower branches rest on the ground and 
quite a portion of the fruit of the tree can be picked from the ground. 
The tree suffers less from violent winds, less fruit is blown off. In the 
eastern states a crop of apples grown in this way might not be sufficiently 
colored. In the semi-arid regions we have a super-abundance of sun light 
and need not fear for the ripening and coloring of the fruit on the lower 
branches. We think it is now conceded that in the trimming of the apple 
tree for semi-arid regions, little more is required than to leave a very low 
head and to remove such branches as would cross or interfere with each 
other in the after-growth of the tree. 

The cherry requires very little trimming. A low, full head remov- 
ing only such branches as cross. Where a very heavy growth had been 
secured by superior cultivation we have found it better to shorten the ends 
of the branches and thus induce a larger number of branches and twigs. 
To grow a maximum crop of cherries requires many branches and small 
twigs. 

In the growing of the peach many of our largest orchardists now se- 
lect small trees, not over two to three feet in height, that the trees may be 
more likely to head low, resulting in less damage from the wind and that 
the major portion of the fruit can be picked from the tree, the picker 



76 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



standing on the ground. In planting the peach it is better to cut back 
the l)ranch to within one to two buds of the trunk and to endeavor to head 
the tree within 8 inches of the ground. We are often asked regarding the 
value of trimming in late August or September, that is, cutting off the 
ends of the shoots to induce early ripening. Apparently there is very little 
in this. The most successful growers of the peach do the needed trim- 
ming in the month of March, while growers in Michigan regard it as wise 
to grow an open head to admit the sun-light and air, and this aids in thin- 
ning the fruit, yet in western Nebraska and Kansas we should hesitate to 
trim the peach to an open head. We find in observing the behavior of a 
good many trees that the peach tree with the open head suffers more from 
hail storms, to which we are liable, and apparently would suffer more 
from the late spring freezes. Our liability to late spring freezes is such 
that we should hesitate to thin out the amount of fruit in the tree by 
trimming in advance of knowing what the spring might bring forth and 
would prefer to thin the fruit as needed at a later period rather than risk 
the thinning of the fruit in March. 

In handling of the grape vine we would regard it as of decided ad- 
vantage to trim in early iSovember and to cover each and every vine be- 
fore winter. 

In the pruning of the shade trees it is neither wise nor safe to trim 
to a high trunk aiming to secure high headed trees during the early 
years of growth, but rather plant with lower heads removing the branches 
gradually and giving heigth of trunk only as a broad head has been de- 
veloped that should secure the most vigorous circulation of sap, and the 
necessary shade of trunk. Excessive pruning at any one time is a serious 
shock to the tree and lessens root growth and development of trunk and 
head. The aim should be at all times to carry the most abundant foliage 
possible since large leaf growth coincides with corresponding root growth 
and the vigorous building up of the tree. To guard against the splitting 
off of the important branches by violent winds, head trees so that the 
principal branches come out at intervals and never two branches of quite 
equal strength at the same point. The tree can easily outgrow the loss of 
small branches and if the branches of the tree are guided as suggested 
there is not likely to be much loss from the splitting out of large branches. 

E. F. Stevens. 

Crete, Nebr. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



77 



ABBORICULTUBE. 

ITS VALUE AND IMPORTANCE. 

BY J. STEELI>'G MORTON. 



Mr. H. W. Campbell, Holdrege, NebrasJca: 

Dear Sir — After an experience of more than forty years at Arbor 
Lodge, adjoining Nebraska City, in the County of Otoe, I declare thnt the 
best method of planting forest trees is in rows running north and south. 
The first row on the east should be of a rapidly growing variety, like catalpa 
speciosa, cottonwood, aspen, or soft maple. The next row should be a nut- 
bearing tree, like the black walnut, butternut, or coffee bean. The next 
succeeding row on the west should be, like the first one, of a rapidly 
growing variety. Planted in this way, the swiftly growing trees act as 
nurses for the slowly growing trees. Planted thus, black walnut, instead 
of putting on a scrubby growth and looking like gigantic quince trees 
when they have reached twenty years of age, run up towards the sun for 
light and make good trunks of^ twenty feet in length. This wood is valu- 
able, and trees thus planted are grown with relative celerity. At Arbor 
Lodge 1 have between 100 and 200 walnuts thus treated, which were put 
into the ground in the autumn of 1863, and if you could see and measure 
them, it would be a work of supererogation for me to make further argu- 
ment in favor of this system of planting. To grow either deciduous trees 
or any variety of conifers on these plains with any degree of success, it is 
necessary to plant them close together. All great forests, whence have 
come the best timber that man has ever used for building and cabinet 
woods, have been dense. The vast pineries of the Northwest were so 
closely planted by nature that it was impossible for a horseman to ride 
through many of them because of the interweaving branches. To success- 
fully grow trees like those the forests produced, we must endeavor to cre- 
ate forestal conditions. 

In 1892 I planted out 10,000 white pines, purchased of Robert 
Douglas' Sons at Waukegan, 111, They were two years old and averaged 
perhaps a foot to 14 inches in height. They were planted in rows 4 feet 
apart, and the trees were 4 feet from each other in the rows. They were 
cultivated three or four years with the plow, the same as corn is cultivated, 
the furrows going first east and west and then north and south. They 
have made a remarkably fine growth, both as to height and circumference. 
Many of them are from four to five inches in diameter and from 18 to 20 
feet in height. It is with difficulty that a man can walk among them, and 
last summer when the drouth and hot winds were doing their worst to 



78 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



smother and parch out vegetation in this section of the country, those 
pines showed no indication of distress. Going in among them and stoop- 
ing down, and looking under their lower limbs, one could see not a single 
particle of vegetable growth aside from the trees. The ground was thor- 
oughly mulched with the needles which had fallen from them, and blan- 
keted the earth, so to speak, with the mold which they had created. Re- 
moving this carpet of needles one could find moist, cool soil at all times. 
The conditions about the roots of these trees were such as their ancestors 
found in the great pineries of Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan. Many 
varieties of trees have been condemned as unfit for cultivation in Ne- 
braska, after trying them in isolated positions, exposed to the hot sun and 
drying winds from the southwest. Trees are almost as gregarious as hu- 
man beings. No man or woman could have been perfectly developed, 
physically and intellectually, in absolute solitude and without communica- 
tion or intercourse with other human beings. And just so, no single tree 
planted out on the hot jjrairie, exposed to the burning sun all day long, can 
make as perfect a specimen of its kind as can be grown where trees are 
clustered together. 

Arboriculture is absolutely indispensable to the conservation of other 
plant life, and even to the existence of animal life on these plains. The 
interdependence of the lives of trees and the lives of human beings is con- 
stant. If a single summer should be passed without foliage, flower or 
fruit on the globe, all animal existence would cease. 

Your great work in soil culiure is thoroughly appreciated by every 
thinking citizen of Nebraska. Your intelligent efforts to benefit the agri- 
culture and horticulture of this state are of greater value to your race and 
to those who come after you than all the efforts of all the members of con- 
gress who have ever represented this commonwealth at Washington. It is 
a gratification to realize that soil culture and arboriculture are destined, 
without asking an appropriation from the general government, to revolu- 
tionize the climatic and productive conditions of the state of Nebraska. 
Just as plants need light and as potato sprouts in dark cellars seek the 
windows and doors where the sun's rays occasionally stream in, so all the 
people of the prairie states need the illuminating practicalities of your re- 
searches and experiments in soil culture, which illustrate the method of 
insuring crops by intelligent tillage against destruction by droughts. 
Arbor Lodge, Jan. 18th, 1902. J. Sterling Morton. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



79 



SUGAR BEETS. 



The cultivation of the sugar beet is worthy of considerable attention 
among the farmers, outside of the question of growing them for the sugar 
factory. With the careful preparation of the soil, which should differ in 
only one respect from that which we have outlined for other crops, and 




Cut No. 18. 

that is deeper plowing, but the same care taken in thorough pulverizing, 
and in the more arid portion thorough packing, large yields may be secured. 
Cut No. 12 shows a field of sugar beets grown at Lisbon, North Dakota, on 
the grounds of the Soldiers Home, under the direction of Colonel Mcllvaine, 
in 1897, the second year's experiment on the same ground, under the 
so-called Campbell Method of Soil Culture. The phenomenal yield of 
J:6,000 pounds per acre was secured, or 23 tons. It may be readily seen 
from this illustration the vast amount of valuable feed that can b€ raised 



80 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



from a very small piece of ground. The question of the manufacture of 
beet sugar has received no little attention in this country during the past 
ten years, and considering the wonderful results that have been attained 
by feeding beet pulp after all the sugar has been extracted, is a strong 
argument in favor of the growing of these beets by all farmers. To one 
who has not raised beets or other garden vegetables, except in little plats 
for domestic use only, it may seem like a very tedious job and quite expen- 
sive. But this is not true. With a fine toothed cultivator and by drilling 
the beets in rows 23^ to 3 feet apart, almost the entire work can be done 
with the horse, requiring a little hand work in thinning. Here, too, some 
surprising results can be attained. In the extreme northwest portion of 
Kansas, only 28 miles from the Colorado line, in 1898, we raised as tine 
beets, parsnips, turnips, carrots, and onions, as any man ever saw on the 
high level prairie, with very little work, except what was done with the 
horse and cultivator. The average farmer in that section did not believe 
it was possible to raise garden vegetables, and little attempt to raise them 
had been made for some time. 

Sugar beets have been fed to sheep, cattle, and hogs in experiment 
at many of our agricultural colleges, with other feed, always with good 
results, especially in feeding sheep. 

That sugar beets may be made to yield enormous crops by the 
Campbell method of utilizing the rainwaters, is clearly shown by Cut No. 
12, showing a field of these beets grown on the Soldiers Home grounds at 
Lisbon, North Dakota, by Col. W. W. McElvaine's diligent efforts in carry- 
ing out our instructions in 1897, the second year of work at this point. It 
being one of the five experimental farms that was started by the Northern 
Pacific Railway in 1896, under our direction. Equal results may be 
secured on almost any of our level prairies of the semi-arid belt with the 
same care and attention, not only in sugar beets, but all vegetables. In 
this work, as in field work, it is not so much the additional or extra 
work, as it is the care as to time and manner of doing the work. 



GROWING POTATOES. 



The growing of potatoes throughout the semi-arid belt seems gen- 
erally to be looked upon as too uncertain to even be considered, in spite of 
the fact that there are many individuals who are raising them and yearly 
making money. There are instances even in sections of southern Nebraska 
where they were less favored in 1901 with spring rains than in most any 
other portion of the state that good crops were grown. In one instance over 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual, 



81 



100 bushels of choice potatoes per acre were raised on a twenty acre field 
and were sold for an average of one dollar per bushel, the entire work of 
the season being done in line with our system of cultivation. The potato 
is a little different from any other crop and requires close attention during 
certain periods of its growth. There is no reason why good paying crops 
of potatoes may not be grown every year at almost any point from Canada 
line to Oklahoma, barring the ravages of insects or leaf blight, both of 
which are usually easily controlled by close attention and the use of proper 
remedies. 




Cut No. 19. 



PREPARING THE SOIL. 

To secure a good croxj of potatoes much care and attention must be 
given to the preparation of the seed and root bed, A glance at cut Xo. 6 
shows the ideal condition. This soil was plowed eight inches deep after 
having been thoroughly disced to a depth of fully three and a half inches; 
the discing having been done early our soil was moist and was in the best 
possible condition to plow; as the furrow rolled over the fine, dry top soil 
went under, the moist soil coming to the surface in an ideal condition, and 
while moist the particles seemed to readily separate one from the other 
and adjust themselves without material resistence to the desired compact- 
ness, as the packer wheels rolled over the plowed ground, which was done 
quite close to the plow. While we have said much upon the importance of 
a proper condition of the soil when all work is done, we must almost repeat 



82 



Campbell's 19D2 Soil Culture Manual. 



it again, because so very much depends upon this to secure fineness, firmness 
and moisture in the soil such as may be most favorable to a rapid and 
full developement of roots such as will lead them to permeate every part 
or portion of the soil as shown in cut No. 6. In this, however, only the main 
lateral roots and branches are shown. The little hair roots or feeders may 
be found in such soil running in every direction, so completely filling the 
soil as to draw moisture and plant food from every portion. In cut No. 19 
we illustrate a condition that should be well understood. It represents at 
the right a section of a branch root showing the cell formation; from these 
outer cells are the hair roots or feeders, A A, running through among the 
particles of soil represented by the dark spots; around these spots are lines 
parallel with the shape of the particle of soil which represents the film or 
covering of water. The white spots represent air spaces. Now, if the 
reader will look at this cut and think for a moment that these hair roots 
or little tubes marked A A in their full size in the soil are barely percept- 
able to the naked eye, and then imagine that these soil grains and air 
spaces here shown are proportionately smaller in their real soil condition, 
he can catch the ideal condition as shown in cut No. 6. 

If you are after a sure crop, as well as a good crop of potatoes, get 
your root bed as near this condition as possible. Now, having previously 
succeeded in storing a liberal amount of moisture in the soil below, as 
shown in Cut No. 8, you can plant your potatoes knowing you have done 
all you could do to assure success so far. 

Planting may be done at the time of plowing by dropping the pota- 
toes on the side of the furrows about 3 inches from the bottom, letting the 
next furrow cover them; or complete the fitting same as for any crop and 
then plant with a potato planter about four inches deep. 

SEED. 

As to variety and quantity of seed, we favor the well-bred early 
Ohio, and prefer large potatoes and cut them as near to two eyes on a 
piece, putting one piece in a hill. For the more arid portions of the semi- 
arid belt we would plant the rows about 3 feet 10 inches apart and drop 
the seed, cut as above, about 20 inches apart. In the lower altitudes, or 
where there is a greater rainfall, plant somewhat closer. Remember, the 
one great point is to never let your potato plant lack for water. If you do 
your crop suffers. Small and knotty potatoes are the result of the potato 
plant getting short of water at certain times, which tends to force the 
ripening or maturing period. Then a sudden and heavy rainfall or the ir- 
rigation of the potatoes after this condition forces a new and rapid growth 
which results in setting a second lot of potatoes, some of which may ap- 
pear on the roots and others on the sides of the already formed potato. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Cultuke Manual. 



83 



CULTIVATION. 

With your crop in the ground under favorable conditions, then comes 
the important work. There is no better tool in the early cultivation than 
the harrow or weeder if you will use it freely and with some judgment. 
The long toothed weeder may be used from the time the crop is planted 
until the tops are too large to draw through between the teeth, providing 
vou catch the soil in just the proper condition, especially in the average 
sand loam soils. Should you get a very heavy rain that may result in 
packing the surface to a considerable depth, then it will be necessary to 
cultivate with some fine tooth cultivator, as in cultivating corn, but in 
such a case it is well to follow the cultivator closely by crossing the rows 
with the weeder. This more completely fines the mulch as well as levels 
it. also loosens the soil among the vines and cleans the young weeds. 
Watch closely the condition, however, and be sure to keep the soil stirred 
deep enough, even if it is necessary to use the cultivator; a mulch of fine, 
loose soil of fully two and a half inches in depth should be kept as soon as 
the potato tops get to any size, and the soil should be stirred often enough 
to keep the top of the firm soil beneath the mulch in a moist condition. 
This condition can be kept if you have moisture stored below and do not 
plant too thick and watch your time of cultivation. Upon the care and 
attention given over to this part of the work depends the quality and 
quantity of your crop. Don't stop cultivation when they are in blossom, 
but don't destroy the roots. Try to carry through the condition as near as 
possible as shown in cut No. 6. 



ALFALFA. 

Alfalfa, like all other crops, thrives best under the most favorable 
conditions. There is probably no point in the raising of alfalfa more im- 
portant than that of securing a good stand. It seems almost impossible, 
in fact climatic conditions must be very favorable, in order to get a catch 
of seed in reseeding spots among well rooted plants. There is no seed that 
responds, or returos greater rewards for a good seed bed than alfalfa, and 
yet it is a very simple proposition, and if the proper course is pursued and 
good seed used there is practically no question about securing a good 
stand. On the high divides in many localities in Nebraska and Kansas 
alfalfa is being raised quite satisfactorily, the only difficulty generally 
being an uneven stand. The summer culture plan by which one season's 
rain is stored in the ground, and the soil carefully prepared as outlined in 



84 



Campbells 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



the chapter under this heading, then sowing the seed the following spring, 
taking care to loosen the surface soil the first opening of spring is best for 
securing a good stand of alfalfa. The best results I have ever seen in 
Western Kansas have come from seeding early in April on ground thus pre- 
pared, with ten pounds of seed put in with a shoe drill with a chain cover. 
At the time of seeding there was about two inches of loose, fine soil on the 
surface made by the use of a common harrow, and the shoe set so as to put 
the seed from one-half to one inch into the solid, fine, moist soil beneath. 
The seed came up quickly and very even, and if there was any complaint 
to be made it was the fact that it was too thick. With the prevailing price 
of alfalfa seed the saving of a few pounds of seed is a great item, espec- 
ially in putting in large fields. The further fact that when once sowed and 
the crop established it is there for years to come, certainly is suflBcient 
argument to support the demand for thorough and careful preparation of 
the seed bed. The summer culture idea involving this storage of one year's 
rainfall puts the soil in such condition for five or six feet down that the 
tap root immediately pushes on down through this moist soil sending out 
the little feeders on their way down, and the chances are that a good crop 
may be harvested the first year, as was true in the case above referred to, 
due only to the fact that the soil conditions were perfect for the rapid de- 
velopment of roots, and ample moisture to produce this magnificient 
growth. While it is true that much better results are attained from 
alfalfa in valleys where sheet water is 8 to 12 feet from the surface, yet a 
suflBcient number of experiments have been made and in some of them a 
suflBcient length of time has elapsed, to warrant the statement that on the 
majority of our high divides in the semi-arid belt as good or better yields 
can be secured from this crop than are commonly harvested in the eastern 
states on the average meadows of timothies and clovers. The value of 
lands where the phenomenal crops or yields of alfalfa along some of the 
valleys in Western Nebraska and Kansas has hardly come to be under- 
stood, or fuU}^ appreciated even by the people who have raised them. We 
are familiar with fields that for three successive years have turned ofiF in 
alfalfa hay alone from §30 00 to 840.00 per acre net profit over and above 
expense of harvesting, and where hay and a crop of seed has been har- 
vested as high as $80.00 net profit per acre has been made. The value of 
this plant for feeding hogs, cattle, and sheep is just beginning to be appre- 
ciated. All experiments thus far carefully conducted have demonstrated 
that there is no fodder plant so valuable. 

The fitting of fields for seeding to alfalfa on old ground cannot be 
better explained than the instructions under the heading of Summer Cul- 
ture for spring wheat. But if the reader must sow without giving the 
year's cultivation and storage of water, then keep in mind two fundamen- 
tal principles, viz.: plenty of stored moisture in the soil below and a fine, 
firm seed bed. There is enconomy in these, as you can not only get a 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



85 



better and more even stand with much less seed, but your chances are in- 
creased many fold for getting a good stand regardless of what the season 
may be. 

SEEDING OX NEW BREAKIXG. 

Alfalfa, like many other crops, may be sowed on new breaking the 
same season the breaking is done and sometimes get satisfactory results, 
but considering its uncertainty and the difference in the value of a good 
crop as against a poor crop and possibly none at all. we are inclined to 
give over the whole season to fitting, for a good crop is then practically as- 
sured. 

Breaking should be done when the grass is growing the fastest, for 
at this time the sod seems to more readily and more completely rot. Let 
the plow run about two and one-half inches deep, using every possible 
means and care to lay the furrow slice flat and roll down solid either with 
the packer or a disc set straight, then harrow; here again the Acme har- 
row comes in with good results, the object being to loosen enough dirt from 
the sod to fill all the crevices between the furrows and form a perfect 
blanket to hold all the rainfall down under the sod, then take care of the 
big rains by harrowing again. If this is fully accomplished the sod will 
not only be fully rotted in a very short time but the top of the subsoil be- 
neath will also become rotted to a deptn of two to three inches. As soon as 
this is found to be true, then begin backsetting or plowing with the stubble 
plow, cutting about two and one-half inches deeper; follow the plow with the 
packer as explained under the heading of Plowing and Sub-Packing, then fol- 
low with the harrow, the Acme preferred, getting it all fine and firm before 
it has time to dry out. Look well to the storage of later rains and be 
ready to loosen the surface in early spring with the harrow and put in your 
seed fairly early, governed largely by the locality, us ng not over ten 
pounds of good seed with a shoe drill and chain cover. If your work is 
all well done, as outlined, you need have no fears of the result. 



BARN YARD MANURES. 



It needs no argument to prove to the eastern farmer in the more 
humid sections of this country, that there is great value in the use of barn 
yard manures. In fact, in most sections of the east every opportunity 
possible is utilized in increasing the quantity. In the west, or more 
especially in the semi-arid belt, farmers have come to look upon this ques- 
tion in an entire different light. Probably in the entire belt at the present 



86 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



time a much larger per cent, of these manures are either thrown into a 
draw or burned up. This is all wrong. There is no section of country 
where the soil would respond more liberally and for a longer period of 
years after the application of manure than here. The difficulty lies in the 
manner of applying. The dryness of our atmosphere and the frequent long 
periods without rain is not conducive to nutrication or decomposition, 
consequently in our early exijeriences in applying it to our fields, more or 
less straw and coarse matter in almost a perfect state of preservation had 
to be used. With our light, loose, loamy soil there is not sufficient weight 
to press this coarse matter down solid when jjlowed under, consequently 
the open jjorous condition underneath, the detrimental effect of which is 
not well known, resulted in burning the crop and producing weeds. We 
have met with the best results by spreading the manures on the surface, 
evenly as possible, then with a sharp disc double-disc the surface, mixing 
it to a considerable extent with the top three inches of soil, then plowing 
six or seven inches deep, using a rod on the beam to turn everything under, 
following the plow with the sub-surface packer, which would result in 
compacting the soil and manures firmly in the bottom. With slight 
moisture under these conditions decomposition quickly takes place. In 
early experience in Brown County, South Dakota, in the year 1882, we 
applied a liberal coating of barn yard manure, plowed it under, and worked 
it down as best we could after the manner usually practiced in old Ver- 
mont. The rainfall during that season was quite liberal and timely. The 
piece, about five acres, was planted to corn and well cultivated, with such 
good results, that we decided to treat the manure question with the same 
care and economy as we were wont to do in the east. The same plan was 
followed out in '83, with a total loss of all the crops which were planted on 
that ground. A small attempt was made again in '84, with the same poor 
results. For several years after this we followed the usual plan of the 
western farmer, of hauling it out and using any possible method to get rid 
of it. But the remarkable results each and every year from the field 
where the manure was applied in '82, was too convincing of its value. For 
ten consecutive years this entire quarter section was put into wheat. 
Every year in the early stages of the growth of the wheat the shape of 
this five-acre field, w^hich was in one corner of the 160 acres, was perceptible 
both in the color of the wheat and the development of the stools, and almost 
invariably at harvest time the grain on this little piece would be from 
four to eight and ten inches higher than the balance of the field, and 
yielded invariably from 50 to 150 per cent. more. With much study along 
these lines, and several experiments, to find out why such remarkable 
results were obtained from this field and why we could not succeed in later at- 
tempts, we were finally able to solve the problem fully. It is simply a ques- 
tion of mixing the manures into the soil as much as possible, and then firm- 
ing the under portion of the furrow slice, thoroughly compacting manure 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



87 



and soil, followed with careful cultivation, when the same results may 
practically be attained any year that were secured in the seasons referred 
to. when we had the unusual amount of rain scattered along at proper 
periods at just the right time to produce decomposition. The peculiarity 
of the formation of our soil is such that manures, when properly applied, 
very materially aid us in carrying our crops through the dry periods and 
preventing the serious effects of the drouth, for the simple reason that the 
humus, which is the complete decomposed vegetable matter, very materially 
increases the water holding capacity of our soil. The more humus 'we 
have in the soil, the greater is the number of particles, consequently the 
greater amount of surface to hold water. It also aids in the movement of 
moisture through the soil, and in the encouragement and development of 
root growth. 

When barn yard manures are properly applied to the prairies of the 
semi-arid belt, their effect upon plant growth is noticeable much longer 
than in the east, where the greater rainfall has a tendency to wash the 
humus below. This trouble of washing out is especially perceptible in the 
gravelly soils of New York and the New England states There is another 
advantage of the semi-arid belt which will be appreciated when these facts 
are better understood by the masses, for our observations so far clearly 
show that, manures are even more valuable here than in the east, not that 
our soil is not fertile, but the more humus we have in the soil the more 
water will each square inch of soil hold, and consequently the safer is our 
crop and less liable to suffer from drought. There is but little expense 
attached to an experiment to ascertain the correctness of our assertions 
on this subject, and were you to make them, you would find more and 
surer profit from them than from government bonds. The sub-surface 
packer is a very valuable tool in securing immediate results from manure. 
See cut No. 2. This shows how the manure would be compacted in the 
bottom. 



THE WEEDEB. 



While the weeder is comparatively a new tool upon the market, it 
has come to stay. Its usefulness is found in many ways. In the growing 
of wheat in the great wheat country, the Dakotas and Northern Minne- 
sota, the fields have become very foul. The effect of the weeds upon the 
yield of the crop is very detrimental. There is a time when the weed first 
makes its appearance that it is easily destroyed. This time in the spring- 
wheat country is usually about the time wheat is stooling. Here the 
weeder comes in with its very effective work. The long flexible tooth as it 



88 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



moves along loosens up the surface of the soil and easily destroys the 
young weeds, while if the root V)ed is fine and firm, the wheat has become 
quite firmly rooted and resists the tooth, which by its lateral flexibleness, 
slips around. Instances are reported where the harrowing of wheat with 
the weeder has more than doul)led the crop. This is not at all remarkable, be- 
cause we not only destroy the weed whose roots rob the roots of the wheat 
of their moisture and plant food, but we break the crust that may have 
been formed by the spring rains, loosening the surface, forming a mulch 
which prevents the evaporation of the moisture. Again in the cornfield 
and potato field we find its work most valuable. On the Pomeroy Model 
Farm, during the season of 1901, we took care of the corn almost entirely 



with the weeder until the corn was fully 15 inches high, destroying the 
weeds completely around the stalks, while as the long flexible teeth 
approach the hills, the stalk, being firmly rooted, resists the teeth, and 
with its flexible lateral movement moves around the stalk without injur- 
ing it in the least, and yet completely destroying all the young weeds, loos- 
ening the surface, not only around the hills, but among the stalks. In the 
cultivation of potatoes we find it equally valuable, as it slips in among the 
potato vines, destroying the weeds in the hills and loosening the surface. 
It is also quite efficient in the orchard and in our summer culture work at 
times when only light rains fall, and do not result in packing our mulch 
very much, but sufficient to moisten it down to the solid soil. While 





One Section of the ( onibination Harrow and AVeeder. 



Cut No. 20. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



89 



under these conditions the evaporation is not as great, yet it is important 
to stir the soil and dry it out. In this work, the weeder being Hght and 
easy of draught, does very efficient work. It is not an expensive tool, and 
to those who have not used it, it is worth their while for investigation. 

Cut No. 20 shows one of the more recent construction of weeders, 
and like the later and newer inventions of any line, has its advantages over 
those of an older pattern. This is really a combination of a harrow with a 
weeder. These teeth, it will be noticed, may be slipped into a hook at the 
rear of the head. When in this position, as is shown on the four front 
bars in the cut, the teeth are 1}4. inches long, and in this position is used 
as a common harrow, and as such does equally as good work as the old 
style steel harrow, both in pulverizing the surface and in smoothing. 

When these teeth are released, as they are shown to be on the rear 
bar in cut, they are 24 inches long. In that position it is a weeder, with 
all the advantages of the common weeder, and in addition can be built 
much wider, even up to 32 feet wide, so that one man with six horses may 
go over 80 to 100 acres of wheat in one day. The position of the teeth may 
be regulated by the lever. 

(See advertisement on another page.) 



A WORD ON DRILLS. 



We hear a good deal of discussion among the farmers with ref- 
erence to the proper drills for sowing small grain. We think many farmers 
are very inuch misled in putting too much stress on the kind of a drill to 
be used. While in the semi-arid belt, if not in the entire great plains coun- 
try, we believe the drill has many advantages over the broad cast seeder 
plan, yet the preparation of the ground, its physical condition, and 
amount of available moisture below at the time of seeding might almost 
be called the controlling condition as to the yield of the crop. If we are to 
admit that it will do to sow ground to wheat or other grain over and over 
again, two, three, and four years without plowing, then we might produce 
some argument possibly in favor of the disc drill or some other special drill. 
But the claim that a tool which will enable us to put seed into the ground 
without first properly preparing the ground is a question that should not 
receive consideration in this belt of country, and will not a few years later. 
Our preference at the present time, presuming that our ground is thor- 
oughly plowed to a good depth, pulverized, and worked down firm with a 
loose mulch on top, is for the shoe drill with a chain cover, the object being 
to deposit the wheat about one inch into the fine, firm, moist soil, in a 



90 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Cultuke Manual. 



narrow crevice so the wheat will come in contact with as much of the very 
moist soil as possible, and the object of the chain cover is to completely 
fill this little trench and yet leave the soil loose on top. This is the plan 
that we followed at the Pomeroy Model Farm the past two seasons, and 
the quick uniform germination and rapid growth and liberal stooling was 
simply wonderful. By careful observation we noticed this fact, that in 
seven days time from the time the seed was dejjosited it would germinate 
and grow six and a half inches in height from the kernel to the top of the 
first blade. If the reader will glance at cut No. 6 and notice the two inch 
mulch on top, the very fine firm condition of the soil underneath and think 
for a moment how perfect the condition is for the rapid development of the 
roots, both sides of where the kernel would lie, put in as we above stated, 
you can readily see the great advantage it has over wheat lying in a loose 
bed. While it is true that almost every drill has its peculiarities and 
possibile advantages in certain kinds of soil. Under certain conditions, it is 
quite an error for the farmer to conclude that he can materially increase 
his crop each and every year by any special construction of drill, but 
rather he should pin his faith to a proper and careful preparation of the 
soil. 

We really do not believe the question of construction of the grain 
drill has as yet reached the point of perfection. The coming drill will be 
one of lighter draught and consequently wider cut, that will deposit the seed 
in firm soil without leaving the soil firm at the surface, like a wheel track. 



RAPE AS A FORAGE PLANT FOR 
THE SOUTHWEST. 

(By E. A. Burnett, Director, Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



The rape plant has long been used as a pasture plant for sheep in 
England and some other European countries. It came to the notice of 
farmers and stockmen of the Central States some ten or fifteen years ago 
and has constantly grown in favor where late summer and fall pasture is 
important. At first it was thought that the rape plant could only be uti- 
lized in the more humid regions, but each year it has extended its western 
limit until at present it is a very important crop in the Red River Valle}' 
and over the entire spring wheat region of the Northwest. There it is 
grown mostly as a second crop after spring grain, but it is also grown to 
some extent as the main crop on the land where early pasture is desired. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Cultlt^e MA>-rAL. 



91 



It is a leaf}', succulent plant, resembling a turnip, except that the foliage 
is more abundant, the plant growing from two to four feet high but pro- 
ducing no edible root. 

VERITIES. 

The Dwarf Essex and Victoria varieties are grown. They are of 
about equal ralue. but the former is rather more common. These varieties 
do not produce seed the first year. As they are killed by the first heavy 
freeze, they never produce seed in this latitude, all seed coming from 
Europe. The plant fives over winter in Cafifornia and it is hoped seed 
may soon be secured from that locality. The seed can be secured from 
any reputable seedsman at a cost of about six to eight cents per pound, in 
lots of ten pounds or over, 

A PASTURE CROP. 

Rape is used only for pasture or soiling purposes. It cannot be 
cured for hay. As pasture it is best adapted to sheep and hogs, but can 
be used for cattle to advantage where there is a shortage of late summer 
and faU feed. 

It can be sown in drills or broadcast in early spring, when it will be 
ready to pasture by early June. If sown in driUs about two pounds of 
seed should be sown per acre with a garden driU, in rows twelve to twenty 
inches apart. The narrow rows may be cultivated with a wheel garden 
hoe, or the wider ones with a horse. After about two cultivations to kill 
the weeds, the crop will take care of itself and may be used sparingly for 
pasture when it is a foot high. If pastured when small and tender, ani- 
mals bite off close and the root fails to send up new shoots, but later in 
the season, when the stalk has become larger and stronger, it may be pas- 
tured down the second or third time and will still come on for another 
crop. 

SOWING THE CROP. 

When sown broadcast without any other crop, as much as five 
pounds of seed per acre may be sown to advantage, as this thicker seeding 
helps to choke the weeds and cover the ground sooner than a thinner 
seeding. When sown alone the land should be well prepared by previous 
harrowing and discing to kill the weeds and store up the moisture in 
the soil. Sow any time from the middle of April to late in June, on weU 
prepared land at the rate of about five pounds of seed per acre and you 
will soon have a fine stand and a splendid hog and sheep pasture which 
will last all summer long if not eaten down too closely. 

AS A SECOND CROP. 

In the states adjacent to Nebraska, rape is most valued as a crop 
which may be sown with grain in the spring and comes on after the grain 



92 



Campbell s 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



is cut. It can be pastured in the late summer and even into the early 
winter as it is not effected by ordinary frost and is only killed by severe 
freezing. 

In Nebraska rape seed can be sown broadcast on winter wheat land 
at the rate of about two pounds of seed per acre. If sown late in April, or 
when the wheat is two or three inches high in the spring, and harrowed 
in, it will make a slow growth under cover of the wheat or rye and when 
the crop is cut will then come on rapidly if any moisture remains in the 
soil. 

Rape may be sown with oats in the spring at the time of seeding, but 
it is better to sow broadcast when the oats are two or three inches high 
and go over the field with a smoothing harrow. This kills the weeds but 
does not injure the grain. It also covers the rape seed and, by breaking 
up the crust on the ground, saves moisture for the crojj. 

Eape may be sown in the cornfield before the last cultivation, and, 
if there is suflBcient moisture to germinate the seed, it will often come on 
and produce fine fall pasture. This can be eaten ofi" by lambs without 
destroying any considerable amount of corn. The lambs will eat the rape 
and the weeds and lower leaves on the corn but will not break down or 
injure the ears of corn unless they are lying on the ground. 

RAPE A VALUABLE CROP. 

In the states of Minnesota and the Dakotas the profit on the rape 
crop, grown as a second crop after wheat or oats, has often been equal to 
the profit on the main crop. Sheep, pasturing on rape sown in stubble 
fields, eat all weeds and scattered grain as well as the growing rape. They 
clean these fields of weeds so that the land is much cleaner for the suc- 
ceeding crop than though sheep had not been there. 

With a good stand of rape in a stubble field you can usually turn the 
stock on about three weeks after cutting the grain crop. Such a field will 
support ten or fifteen sheep per acre and keep them growing for six weeks. 
I have known many instances where sheep have produced one hundred 
pounds gain in weight per acre on rape in stubble fields. This gain was 
worth four or five dollars on the market and was clear profit. I have 
reason to believe cattle might be made to do nearly as well where rape was 
used to supplement other pasture, or where a little hay or straw was fed 
to neutralize the succulent effect of the rape. 

CAUTIOX AGAINST BLOAT. 

There is some danger from bloat in turning animals on rape pasture, 
especially if they are accustomed to it and eat it greedily at first. It is 
best to have prairie or tame grass pasture connected with the rape field or 
at first to have a feed rack with hay or straw accessible. It is also safer. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



93 



at first, to have the stock full of other feed, either pasture or grain, so they 
will not be hungry and eat too greedily. Some farmers practice turning 
their stock on the rape from other pastures and leaving them there only an 
hour or so each day until they become used to it. I have generally found 
little difficulty with animals put on rape for the first time, as they prefer 
other foods until they learn to eat the rape plant and seldom overfill. 

RAPE COMES WITH INTENSIVE METHODS. 

As we are endeavoring to secure larger profit per acre from our land, 
it is often necessary to take advantage of a catch crop to add to the profit 
and increase the stock-carrying capacity of our farms. Whether or not 
we can do this wiU depend on our location and amount of our rainfaU. 
Experience has shown that rape as a catch crop, when pastured off. 
increases rather than decreases the fertility of the land. Experiments in 
North Dakota and practical experience on many Minnesota farms show a 
larger yield of grain following rape than where no rape had been grown. 
It also showed fields cleaner from weeds and in better condition to raise 
the next crop. 

In Nebraska the wheat fields can be sown to rape and followed by 
corn without any loss of time on the crop. But a rape field could not be 
pastured and sown to winter wheat as we wish the pasture late in the 
season. 

A SUMMER FEEDING GROUND. 

The wheat and rape fields of Nebraska are excellently situated to in- 
tercept the range lamb as he comes from the range in August and Septem- 
ber on his way to market. The range lamb is practically as heavy in 
August as in November. He can be fattened on the waste products of our 
Nebraska farms with little or no grain feeding and sent forward a finished 
lamb before winter sets in. This is being done with thousands of range 
lambs in Nebraska today and the business should be greatly developed. 

The rape field may be exactly the thing needed to tide the farmer 
over with his cattle from summer to autumn pasture. It cannot be de- 
pended on as the only means of carrying stock through the :?ummer but it 
is a valuable adjunct to good pastures and a great assistance in stock 
farming. 

Note. — We are of the opinion that Prof. Burnett's idea of the rape 
field for the range lamb to cheaply and quickly fatten him in the fall 
months is a very practical one in any part of the semi-arid belt, and may be 
made one of certain success regardless of the. possible dry mid summer 
and early autumn, by taking a piece of ground and proceeding precisely 
according to bur plan for summer-culture, storing the moisture from early 
spring up to the middle of June, then plow and prepare land thoroughly, 
getting a fine, firm seed and root bed with a good soil mulch. Sow the 



94 



Campbell s 1902 Soil Ccxture Ma^'lal. 



rape about the middle of July, having kept a close watch to store and con- 
serre all rain waters up to sowing. The quickness with which the rape will 
germinate and the rapidity and rankness of its growth throughout the 
fall will be a surprise. We look for this plan to develop into large propor- 
tions because of its practicabilitA' and sure success. 



SORGHUM FOB FORAGE. 

By Prof. A. L. Hecker. Nebraska Experiment Station.) 



THE PLANT. 

Sorghums, both saccharine and nonsaceharine, are too well known to 
need description, especially the saccharine which is grown in every state 
in the Union and familiar, no doubt, to every farmer of the Trans-Missis- 
sippi region. 

The plant is supposed to be a native of central Africa and has been 
grown in this country some fifty or sixty years. This habit of rapidly 
acclimating itself has. no doubt, caused its spread and popularity. 

Like corn it requires warm weather for rapid growth and does best 
on a rich, sandy loam, but will make a fair crop on nearly any kind of soil 
where crops will grow, Ssorghum will stand much tramping which 
makes it a plant adapted for pa^^turing. 

PL-\NTING. 

There are many methods of planting in common use throughout the 
country, but the purpose for which the crop is intended has much to do 
with the method used. 

Where the sorghum is grown for syrup or sugar it should be of a 
strongly saccharine variety and planted far enough apart to produce a good 
stalk. Plant like corn in hills and cultivate or list or drill in rows far 
apart. 

For forage, sow broadcast from one to one and a half bushels per 
acre, harrowing in well or drilling in with a .press drill. The amount of 
seed to use will depend on its quality and whether you wish a thick stand 
or not. When sown broadcast thickly it will produce a smaU stalk and 
must be harvested as you would hay. 

Listing sorghum is popular in Nebraska and Kansas, especially in 
the western portions, where the rainfall is light and the soU rich and loose. 
Double listing is also practiced and thorough surface ciLltivating is, with- 
out doubt, the best method to grow sorghum during a drought. 



Campbell's 1902 Soll Cultuee Ma>'ual. 



95 



The best sorghum crops grown in western Nebraska during the past 
few years were listed or planted in drills far enough apart to allow culti- 
ratiog. 

Where the crop is to be used for pasture or hay. sowing broadcast 
or drilling in thick is the best method and especially so in sections where 
rainfaU is plentiful. 

WHEN TO PLANT. 

Sorghum seed like corn germinates best in warm earth not too wet 
and will do better planted after the corn rather than before. 

It makes a good catch crop and under ordinary conditions will give 
a fair amount of forage on land which has grown a crop of rye or winter 
wheat. 

The land in all cases should be well prepared and free from lumps 
and growing weeds. 

The weeder should be used freely in early cultivation, as weeds should 
never be allowed to get the start of a sorghum field. 

When once the sorghum gets a start no weed can ever get the upper 
hand, but on the contrary the sorghum will choke down everything. 

HARVESTING. 

When pastured it should not be turned on to until it reaches at least 
a two foot growth as the young plants wiU have then formed deep roots 
and will produce second growth. 

Sorghum poisoning is still a mystery to science and is therefore 
difficult to cope with. However, we find it limited as a rule to certain dis- 
tricts which happily are few. 

In sections where it is dangerous to pasture the sorghum, the wilted 
or cured forage has never been known to cause death, so the best preven- 
tive in this case is to soil or feed the cured fodder. 

Where the crop is sown thickly in drills or broadcast it may be har- 
Tested as you would hay, cutting with a mower when the seed is in the 
early dough state. It should be left on the ground only long enough to 
wilt and partly change color when it can be raked up in bunches of half a 
ton each and then piled in cock to cure. Another method is to harvest 
with a reaper, allow to cure well in bundle, and then stack or put in barn. 

When listed or drilled in rows, double or single, the best method is 
to cut with a corn harvester, the bundles are most convenient to handle 
and u'ill cure icell. 

It may also be cut with a reaper, or corn cutter, when it should be 
shocked, as is common with Indian corn. A self rake reaper is sometimes 
used to good advantage. When in the loose bundle it will cure and may 
then be placed in shocks or long narrow rooks. 



96 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



The seed production of sorghum runs from 20 to 40 bushels per 
acre, according to the richness of the soil and variety grown. To obtain 
the best seed the sorghum should be planted far enough apart to grow a 
strong, vigorous stalk. Seed may be grown from thickly planted cane, but 
it is of an inferior quality and will not weigh out or germinate like well 
developed cane seed, which is also much more valuable for feeding pur- 
poses. 

If harvested in this method the seed can be easily threshed out, and 
is a paying crop for that purpose alone. 

The yield of sorghum is a factor strongly in its favor, and one 
which puts it ahead of nearly any other plant. From 3 to 15 tons is the 
variable yield of cured fodder per acre, and on rich lands 7 or 8 tons can be 
counted on 

Where two or three cuttings can be made, as in some parts of the 
south, the yield runs up very high. It is a soiling crop of great value and 
can be fed to horses, cattle, sheep, and swine, with goood results. From 
its habit of second growth it will produce until killed by frost. 

When cut in bloom it furnishes the largest amount of digestible 
nutriments, but is hard to cure at this stage. At the blooming period it 
is best to soil and makes one of the best foods to give dairy cows that are 
on poor pastures. 

FEEDING VALUE. 

In feeding value sorghum may be considered closely akin to corn, 
both in seed and stalk, the seed being a little less nutritious than 
shelled corn, while the sorghum forage well cured is better than corn 
stover. 

While considerable investigating has been carried on by our Experi- 
ment Stations to determine the feeding value of this wonderful plant there 
is still much left for further investigation. 

We know it to be a valuable forage for all kinds of stock, but little 
is known as to its digestibility in varieties and stage of growth. 

The writer in co-operation with Prof. Lyons at the Nebraska Exper- 
iment Station tested for several years the pasture value of sorghum and 
other forage plants. In these tests we found the sorghum plant to fur- 
nish the greatest amount of pasture of any of the annual plants tested. 
A one-fifth acre plat will furnish pasture to one cow on full milk flow for 
one month. To get the best results when pasturing milch cows on sor- 
ghum a little feed, high in nitrogen, should be given as the young sor- 
ghum plant is strongly carbohydrate and weak in protein, while the high 
water percentage makes it difficult for the animal to get the required 
amount of protein. 

Prof Burnett found in feeding sheep on sorghum hay in compari- 
son with alfalfa that the latter gave much the better gains, but still sor- 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



97 



ghum made a very good showing in his experiments, bheep naturally are 
fond of leguminous plants and will do better when fed on a palatable ra- 
tion. This might account for some of the loss in gain. 

From time to time complaints have been made that sorguhum hay 
has a tendency to reduce the milk flow of dairy cows. The author has in- 
vestigated a few cases of this kind and found, as a rule, the feeder had 
given his animals a ration of sorghum hay and nothing else, which is not 
to be advised in dairy cows. 

The sorghum is often poorly cured, being sour, musty, or over 
dried, in which case much of its value is lost. 

To feed sorghum hay and get the best results it should be balanced 
with clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay. A grain ration may be given composed 
of bran, shorts, oats, or part corn, when fattening stock or feeding milk 
cows. 

It is a palatable food and cattle will often leave the best tame hay 
for some well cured sorghum. 

It is safe to say this great drought resisting plant should be grown 
much more than it is, and especially in the west. 

Alfalfa is a grand feed, but like sorghum, it is better balanced than 
fed alone. With sorghum we have a forage cheap, drought resisting, 
nourishing and sure. 



IRRIGATION. 



It would hardly be proper to close our book without a word on irri- 
gation, especially considering the fact that some have seemed to conceive 
the idea that our system was antagonistic to irrigation and that the promo- 
tion of this work generally would retard the development of irrigation enter- 
prises, but this is far from true. The fundamental principle upon which the 
success of our system is based is the the economical use of water, it matters 
not from whence it cometh, whether direct from the clouds or from the flowing 
streams, ditches, reservoirs, or wells. The first and important thing is to get 
a supply of water stored in the soil to feed, nourish, and mature the crop in a 
period of dry weather, and the second, and almost equally important req- 
uisite, is the thorough preparation of the seed and root bed, so vital in 
the success of our system, all of which is nearly or quite as necessary in 
growing crops by the artificial application of water required by irrigation. 
We do not mean to be understood that a man may not get a better crop 
with plenty of water to turn loose at will upon a piece of ground poorly 
fitted than he could with the same reckless fitting and be obliged to de- 



98 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



pend upon replenishing his soil with moisture from the heavens, but this 
is not the question today with the progressive farmer. It is how can we 
get the greatest results from our soil, labor and expense considered. In 
irrigation, water usually means money. There are few irrigation ditches 
today that carry enough water through the season to irrigate all the land 
that might be reached with water from the ditch. There are many fields 
that are made to suffer that are under the ditch and crops made light that 
if the principles involved in this book were understood and applied pre- 
cisely as we outlined them to these fields, larger yields might be realized, 
and more acres covered with the same amount of water when the irrigator 
better understands the nature of plants and just what physical condition 
is best for the support of healthy roots and how they gather plant foods. 
Due consideration must be given to the roots of the plant and their neces- 
sary supply in proper (|uantities, not only of water, but of air also. Too 
much water at times is just as detrimental as too little water. A clear 
conception of how water moves in the soil is just as important to the irri- 
gator as to the man who depends solely upon the rainfall. 

The ideal condition for the most healthful and successful growth of 
all cultivated crops is a good depth of root bed made thoroughly fine and 
firm. There is little danger in getting the average sand loam soils, so 
common in the arid and semi-arid sections, too firm, while some of our 
heavy clay soils if not properly handled might become too closely com- 
pacted, but this kind of soil is not at all common. Previous to the 
thorough fitting of the seed and root bed see to it that ample moisture is 
stored below where nature can do her part by bringing it up to the roots 
of the growing plants by capillary attraction, then keep your surface al- 
ways cultivated in such a manner as to provide as near as possible a fine, 
loose mulch of soil (not dust), stirring it often enough to keep the moisture 
up to the top of the firm soil just beneath the mulch. The moment the top 
of this firm soil becomes in the least dry there is immediately a process of 
depositing of salts and other matter between these particles of soil closing the 
pores and consequently diminishing the quantity of air that should freely 
pass through this soil to the roots. This condition not only points to the 
fact that you are allowing the air to be shut out but that you are losing 
moisture by evaporation from the soil which may be checked by cultiva- 
tion. In fact, there should be no dry soil abov*^ your moisture except 
what is loose and fine. See to this point at all times. Note our explana- 
tion on this subject under Growing Trees. 

Our article on percolation should be of interest to the irrigator as it 
indicates under what condition he can most economically apply his water. 

The articles on Evaporation and Capillary Attraction should like- 
wise be studied. Sub-irrigation is being practiced with marvelous results 
in some instances. It simply illustrates the importance of keeping the soil 
above the roots simply moist but in condition to admit of a free circulation 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



99 



of air. The same condition practically is maintained when we store the 
rain waters in the soil or waters from irrigation ditches and allow it to 
percolate down deeply, then hold the water below by the mulch. Irriga- 
tion scientifically applied by the Campbell method will accomplish mar- 
velous results. 



REVIEW OF THE CAMPBELL 
METHOD. 



Omaha, Neb., Jan. 29, 1902. 

Prof. H. W. Campbell, Holdrege, Neb. 

Dear Sir: — I take pleasure in contributing to your volume on Soil 
Culture my sincere testimonial in behalf of the work you have done, and 
the valuable results attained which justify the prediction that at no distant 
period agriculture and horticulture will prosper on the great semi-arid 
plains of the west, and millions of acres of fertile lands, lacking now noth- 
ing but the application of your method of cultivation, will become pro- 
ductive farms. 

Since the spring of 1898 I have taken great interest in your experi- 
ments in the field, and visited in that year and the following year, several 
times, your farm in Cheyenne County, Kansas, and later your Model Farm 
in Graham County, in the same state, for the special purpose of studying 
your soil physics, and gaining as full a comprehension of your system of 
soil culture as possible. 

I began my observations and study at the outset with a lack of faith, 
full of doubts and criticisms, and struggled along for some time against 
the conversion which came later and completely removed every ground of 
disbelief that had previously established itself in my mind. I had doubted, 
at first, whether the texture and formation of the soils found in the dry 
prairies were such that the upward movement of moisture from the reser- 
voirs of water stored below the surface by your method of cultivation, 
would be sufficiently rapid, at the critical junctures that continued drought 
brings, to supply the field crops with the quantity of moisture absolutely 
needed to sustain growth and carry them over an extremely dry season. 
I am glad, however, to testify that my study and observation of the facts 
respecting this vital question, under such circumstances and conditions, 
both at Bird City and in Graham County, as made an extreme test of your 
system, proved to my mind conclusively that the capillary movement is 
ample in the severest drought, and that the only thing required is the con- 
servation in the soil strata below of a quantity of moisture sufficient to 
carry the crop through the drought period: and that the problem of con- 



L.ofC. 



100 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual, 



serving a sufficient quantity of water is easily solved by early discing and 
subsequent plowing and sub-packing at the right time, and following the 
details of your method of cultivation, so that the entire season's rainfall 
may be stored and conserved for use to sustain and nourish the growing 
crop during the summer months. 

With these two problems solved to my satisfaction, as they certainly 
were under the adverse conditions of two very dry seasons. I became an 
enthusiastic believer in. and advocate of. the Campbell Method of Soil 
Culture. Practically and substantially, with these questions .settled, all 
doubt as to the reliability and value of your system of cultivation was 
removed and it became then a clear and plain matter to my mind that the 
saving of the rain waters by means of the soil mulch kept in active service 
by frequent stirring (according to your plan; and the percolation down 
into the storage reservoir below where they are held for the season's use. 
extraordinary crops may be grown every year. 

My familiarity with nearly every section of the western portion of 
Nebraska and Kansas, and the eastern part of Colorado, leads me to the 
firmest belief that what you have done in Cheyenne and Graham Coun- 
ties, in Kansas, can be done in all those adjacent sections where precisely 
the same condition of soil, rainfall, and climate prevails as in Cheyenne 
County, especially, and very nearly the same as are found in Graham 
County. 

In tree growing you have accomplished results that are almost 
incredible to anyone who has not actually made the measurements of root 
growth and the growth of the trees made in your orchard in a single sea- 
son, and satisfied himself of the success in that work that can be wrought 
by the practice of your system. I do not think I exaggerate when I say 
that your tree growths and orchard conditions, attained by your system 
of cultivation, aided by the soil mulch as taught by you, are as surprising 
and valuable as any that I have ever seen under irrigation in Southern 
California, where I have been a frequent visitor. I believe that before 
you have lived the allotted span of three score and ten years, you will be re- 
joiced as you shall look upon the measureless magnitude of a transformation 
wrought by your brain and your hand, by which a territory nearly as large 
as the continent of Europe, ( except Russia), and now treeless, bleak and 
unsheltered, will teem with woodland groves, magnificent harvest fields, 
fruitful orchards and gardens, among which the spires of numberless vil- 
lages, churches, schools, and thousands of happy homes may be seen, all 
comprising and maintaining a vast aggregation of intelligent and pros- 
perous people. 

We are glad to do you honor and bid you God speed in this great 
work which is of inestimable value to your race. 

Yours truly, 

C. A. Parks. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Cultuee Manual. 



101 



TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS ON THE 

FARM. 



We caDnot close these chapters without a few wwds of friendly 
counsel to the boys and girls on the farm. 

Don't leave the farm. Stay on the old farm homestead, where you 
were born. It is the best home on earth. 

Don't try to get away from nature, but get nearer to her if possible. 

Drink her pure waters; eat her unadulterated foods, and breathe her 
sweet, pure air. These will combine to give you, and continue to .^ive you, 
the rosy faces you wear, the buoyant, hopeful hearts that beat in your 
breasts, and the innocence and honesty that protect your lives from evil. 

Remember that George W ashington was a farmer and was proud of 
his calling, that, also, of the splendid galaxy of our great men whose dis- 
tinguished talents were devoted to the service of their country as states- 
men or presidents, since Washington's time, and whose fame is the greatest 
of all the nation's sons, the most of them were farmers, or joined agricul- 
ture with their public service or their professional pursuits. Daniel 
Webster, New England's greatest lawyer and statesman, was a farmer, and 
often left the Senate or Cabinet and returned to bis farm on the quiet 
shore of Marshfield to follow the plow behind his favorite oxen. 

He often said that he might frequently be found elsewhere but his 
heart could always be found at Marshfield. We have never met a great 
mind that did not love the land and long to settle dow^n on some spot of 
ample acres where he could drink in the ambrosial delights of fields, 
meadows, and pastures with herds and flocks. Do not, my young friends, 
doubt, that to be an intelligent, progressive farmer is a higher vocation 
than any profession you can choose. 

No matter how far you have pursued learning, or to what degree of 
refinement and elegance your accomplishments have reached, you will need 
them all to take first rank as a farmer. Chemistry, physics, and astronomy 
are the present necessarj- equipment for the leaders in the science of suc- 
cessful farming; and languages and the classics are a substantial aid to 
enable you to become counselors and instructors, and capable to teach 
others w^ho are ambitious to learn to be first-class tillers of the soil. 

Do not look down on farming, as a business, or permit anyone to dis- 
parage it in your presence without just rebuke, for it is far superior to the 
business of the tradesmen, or the "middle men," so-called, in any capacity, 
the latter of whom, especially, live like the scavenger sparrow^s, on "pick- 
ings." 

Do not measure the importance and consequence of a business by 



102 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



the fact that it can be carried on by men dressed u^j, whose hands are kept 
clean and soft, and whose faces are dehcately pale and generally emaciated; 
pale and thin, very likely, for want of strong lungs and fresh, pure air 
and the lack of a good stomach and a corres^jonding appetite and an abund- 
ance of wholesome food, such as you always have on the farm. 

Do not deceive yourselves by the delusive fancy that to live in the 
city where you will never get accjuainted with your neighbors, and where 
the only amusement or recreation you can enjoy outside four stuffy walls, 
except you plank down one or two hard-earned dollars for a ticket to some- 
thing, is to walk up and down miles of streets and look into show windows, 
fixsd up to trap the unwary passers into buying something they don't need, 
is a better and happier abode than a good, comfortable farm home with a 
smokeless sky overhead and clean dirt underneath, and water to drink 
which is not pumped from a drainage canal, and with fine horses, and fat 
steers, and swine to look at, when at leisure, instead of the "jim cracks" of 
a jewelry shop, or the unmentionable and useless finery and things of other 
shops hung out by the city merchants to temyjt you to purchase. 

Think over the ways of the great city and then forever afterwards 
avoid it. 

Not that we would advise you never to visit a city. No. Once a 
year, or, perhaps, less frequently, it may be well to cautiously enter its 
gates and breathe for a day the coal soot and brimstone loaded atmosphere 
of the metropolis. To take a peep into some of the dark holes, or stores, 
or trade marts, where bustling men and women are toiling and struggling, 
many to make just a little less than living wages, and some others, grunting 
and sweating to beat and push away their rivals and amass what they 
deem a fortune, utterly ignoring the divine teaching, '"What shall it profit 
a man to gain the whole world and lose his own soul." 

Visit for an hour the levee, so-called, a place known in some cities as 
"Hell's six acres," but be sure and take a stalwart policeman along. It is 
well to go there to get a glimpse of the unutterable poverty, misery, and 
sin, and the uncleanliness and degregation that human life can endure 
and for a time survive; then you should note how near to this festering 
swarm of human rottenness and woe the grand avenues and boulevards 
run, where the palaces of men who are gorged with accumulated riches 
stand as monuments of their success, at winning victories, by cunning and 
avarice, and largely by accident, over their fellow-men. 

We would advise also, that you look at the reverse side of the great 
city, for there is a reverse side. Sodom and Gomorah had their temples 
of art, and these were, in their time, worthy of an occasional visit. 

You should look into the museums and galleries and attend one or 
more of the grand concerts to catch a little of the inspiration that comes 
from the performances of great artists. Do not fail to look into the 
public libraries and book stores, the latter to select a number of volumes 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



103 



to add to your home collection; for books are cheap, and are the best 
friends and companions that we can have. They are especially more val- 
uable and beloved by you in your farm homes where you have leisure in the 
long winter evenings and in rainy weather, and at odds and ends of hours 
between your labors, to hold refreshing communion with them. 

One night spent in the great city at the time of your annual visit 
will be enough. The "chink, chunk, and whiz" of the street cars, and the 
blowing of what will seem a million whistles, and the dashing oaths and 
grim yells and groans of the wide open nocturnal metropolitan life, and the 
fierce glare all night long of the electric light into your little seven by nine, 
two dollar per diem city bedroom, where you can sleep "nary a wink," will 
quench for a time your thirst for the fatiguicg jars of the great city, and 
you will return home in a splendid spirit to enjoy your free, healthful, nat- 
ural, and independent life on the farm. 

Any young man can average to make a larger annual income in a 
period of five years on a farm than he can earn in the better grade of sal- 
aried positions in the city. The portion of that income which he can save 
in the country for a bank account or for investment, is more than twice 
the amount he could lay by if he lived in the city. 

The temptations to the young in the city to waste earnings at places of 
amusement and in the purchase of many things that are of no useful purpose, 
and the constant menace there of the most powerful of the devil's allies, 
the saloon — which holds its jaws of death open night and day to swallow 
you up, and the immoralities, and other dangers there, should extinguish 
within you every desire to move from the country to the city. We say 
to the young men and yoang women who live on the farms of our bountiful 
west, write "excelsior" on your escutcheons, and look up with love and ad- 
miration to the noblest vocation given to man on this earth, agriculture, 
and resolve that you will cling to it and follow it through life. "Husband- 
man," "yeoman," the sole and exclusive qualifiication of a Roman citizen, 
and the mark of greatest distinction for any man in that time of su- 
perb civilization and learning, when the proud "Mistress of the World" by 
her Caesars declared that husbandry alone qualified a Roman to exercise 
the franchise of citizenship. 

Our appeal to you is to resolve to continue to be farmers. Buy land 
and improve it and increase your fortune by its enhanced value which is 
sure to come. 

Educate yourselves in the knowledge and art of creating ideal farm 
homes. Bring to your use the improved and labor saving tools and uten- 
sils that have rendered it so much easier to perform the labor on the farm. 
Buy good books as your means will permit to give your wife and children 
the advantages of reading and culture. Give time and interest to the country 
social life which contributes so much to the enjoyment of all members of 
the neighborhood; above all, cultivate in the rural community where 



104 



Campbell s 19U2 Soil Culture Manual, 



you live the Christian spirit of cheerfulness and helpfulness among your 
people. 

You will, I doubt not, come to believe that a country home; the 
farm; the old homestead; the trees and the orchard; the familiar fields and 
the cool, shady spots in the heat of the summer; the comfortable rooms and 
corners in the old farm house: the well-thumbed books; the children that 
will come to bless your hearts, all ruddy with the health of the country life; 
these, and a thousand other things, with sweet remembrances and happy 
sentiments will make your farm home far dearer to you than piles of brick 
and stone and dark rooms in the great city, can ever ]be to a true heart and 
a healthy mind. 



Campbell's 1902 "Soil Culture Manual. 



105 



Reliable Goods in All Lines. 

Largest Variety of Pumping Machinery Especially 
Adapted to 

I R.R.I CATION 



Fairbanks-Morse Gasoline Engines. 




Engines connected with Centrifugal Pumps. 
Combined Engines and Pumps. 
Combined Engines and Air Compressors. 
Geared Base Engines. 
Engines Connected with Power Working Heads and Triplex Pumps. 
Also complete line of STEAM PUMPS, STEAM ENGINES and BOILERS. 
ECLIPSE WOOD WINDMILLS for Pumping. 



FAIRBANKS-M ORSE & CO. 

Chicago. St. Paul. St. Louis. Salt Lake City. 

Cleveland. Minneapolis. Kansas City. San Francisco. 

Cincinnati. Indianapolis. Omaha. Los Angeles. 

Detroit. Louisville, Denver. Portland, Ore, 

London, England. 



106 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



AVER.Y CROP RAISERS 



Best Resvjlts, Follow the Use of Practical Up-to-Date Implemervts. 




AVERY CORN QUEEN. 

Either Style Runner. 

A most Afoiirato. Certain. Very Strong and 
very Best Kiiiiipped Planter made A ma- 
chine that will be doint,' perfect work years 
after others are worn out. 



THE VACUNA. 

Greatest of combined Cultivators, and one 
of Six distinct types of Cultivators we build 
with not a poor one in the lot. Furnished 
with any style gant?8, Eaele Clawu, Imprint: 
Tooth Gopher, !!iprlne Trip«, Etc. 

Mii,t ()Ki», Nki'... April IJ. 19<)l. 
A\ Kl!^ Mf<;. Co.. 
Teoria. 111. 
(iKNTi.KMKN : Your favoF of the 9th 
of April at hand, asking if I have bought 
any machinery elsewhere, and I reply 
herewith that I have not bought yet, hut 
I will l)uy a riding cultivator of Mr. Paul 
Herpolsheimer. / uould not huy any 
ii'hi y kind than the Avcrij for I know by 
experience they are far the best. 

We are using three Avery Cultivators, 
and we have an Avery Stalk Cutter and a 
Corn rianter. I think they can't be beat. 
Respectfully yours. 

Mart IN Willeks. 

The j$EsT machincrv costs but little more Chan common kinds. It will pavvoii to inve.stigratc 
our line, which also includes AVA(;ON.S, STAI.K CTTTEKS, KXCilN KS.THKKSHEKS, 
ETC. Our handsome Cataldtruc FP.F.K. 



Col 

Aveky .NrF(;. 

Peoi-iM. Ill 
Dkak Sii;s 
concei'ii thai 
tors, but ijoiH 
the Vac i XA. 
ease and it w 
hillsides ainl 
fectiou. All' 
drive a lean 
euce. J (lr( 
.stopped; Inn 
and I pIou.L'-h< 



MHi s. Ml).. March l.")th lUiil. 



I wish to say to whom it may 
I have used different eiiltiva- 
of tlieiii ever did the work like 
.\ii>- perxiii can handle it with 
irks like a dock. 1 \\'(jrk it on 
•oii.^li land ami ir \vork> to pcr- 
|ier~'in can work it that can 
nf lior.-cs, it makes no differ- 
ve to where the corn row 
1 thereon ii was sodded frround 
(I ri^-^ht through this <rround. 
Voiirs truly. 

I)A.Nif:i. Wa(;xkk. 



AVERY MANUFACTURING CO. 



697 Iowa St., PEORIA, ILL. 



CRETE NURSERIES. 



ESTABLISHED 1872. 



We offer full line of Nurseiy stock carefully grown for. and adapted to the semi-arid 
West. The remarkable success of liur lariTc branch Commercial Orchards in Western Nebraska 
clearly shows that our trees ai e adapted to Western conditions. In the Daniel Hunter orchard. 
31T miles west of Omaha, apple trees jtlanred in l^'.i? yielded one and three-fourths bushels per 
tree in 1901. Peach trees planted same season yielded two bushels per tree. 

We grow for and send out to our customers the same varieties which have proven success- 
ful for us. We do not winter our trees in cellars. Trees and plants in possession of full vigor, 
are packed with such care as to reach customers in condition to gmw. 

We supplied the Pomeroy station with the trees so succtssfnlly iilanted in 1900-1901. We 
yet hold the record of growing the largest number of bushels of apples in one season of any 
orchard in ISTebraska. Correspondence desired. Satisfaction guaranteed. Address. 

E. F. STEPHENS, Mgr. ...CRETE, NEB. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Ma>-ual. 



107 




ACME 

Pulverizing Harrow, 
Clod Crusher 
and Leveler 



SENT ON TRIAL, to be Returned at my Expense if not Satisfactory. 

1 deliver free uu board ar Kansas City. ChioagD. i olumlnis. Luuisville. Xew York. 
Minneapolis. San Francisco, etc. Sizes 3 to IS^-o Feet. The best pulverizer and 
cheapest Ricling- Harrow on eanh. We also make walking Acmes. The Acme 
crushes, cuts, pulverizes, turns and levels all soils for all purposes. Made en- 
tirely of cast steel and wrought iron— indestructible. The Acme is highly 
recommended by Mr. Campbell, and has " stood by" him in all of his experiments. 
Catalog and booklet. "An Ideal Harrow," by Henry Stewart, mailed free. 

DUANE H. NASH, Sole Manufacturer 

MILLINGTON, NEW JERSEY, and CHICAGO. 

PLEASE MEXTIOX THIS BOUK. 



Burlington 
Route 



Land and 

Emigration Agents 



COWQILL & FULLER, Holdrege 

L^nTs Phelps Co. Nebraska ^i^sLs 



REAL ESTATE bought sold, and rented. Taxes paid for nou-resideuts. Fakm Lo 

IxsrEAXCE axd Bonded Ab-tea<: tees . 'F Title. 
Write for Our Farm List 



108 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Manual. 



|THB ORieSIMAL AMD O N LV 

[SUB-SURFACE PACKER 




This is the Sub-Surface Packer that does pulverize and pack the lower portion of deed 
plowing and leave the top loose. 

If you want to get a good and sure stand of ALFALFA with one-half the seed usually 
6own, get a Sm-SrEFACE Packer. 

Prof. Cottrell. of the Kansas Agricultural College, in a recent communication, said : 
•'The Kansas experiment station has been testing for several years 
the Campbell svstem of sub-surface packing and the results obtained on the 
college farm indicate that this method should be practiced in dry times on 
every farm in the state. 

In the last four vears we have never failed to get a stand of any kind 
of grass, alfalfa, clover, millet or wheat where the ground has been packed, 
while if dry wc have failed with all these crops where the packer has not 
been used." , 
It is no longer a theory but a demonstrated fact that the lower portion of plowed ground 
must be as carefully fitted as "the upper to assure the best results. 
"Write for full description and prices. 

MANUFACTURED AND SOLD BY 

KING $c HAMILTON COMPANY 

OTTAWA, ILLINOIS. 

ALSO CARRIED IN STOCK AND SOLD BY 

PIONEER IMPLEMENT CO., Kansas City, Mo. 

PIONEER IMPLEMENT CO., Council Bluffs, la. 

FOSTER IMPLEMENT CO., St. Paul, Minn. 



Campbell's 1902 Soil Culture Makual. 



109 



"(She 

Semi -Weekly 

CAPITAL 



TOPEKA. KAS 



Published Tuesday and Friday 
of each week. Contaius all the 
Associated Press telegraphic 
news and a complete Market 
Report. :: :: :: :: :: :: :: 



A newspaper made expressly for 
the Western Farmer. :: :: 



Price. $1.00 Per Yea.r 



Send 81:10, and we will send 
you the Semi-Weekly Capital 
one year and Campbell's Excel- 
lent Manual on Soil Culture. :: 



The Capital Publishing Co. 

TOPEKA, KANSAS 



110 



Campbell's 1902 Soil. Culture Manual. 




THE 

AMERICAN 

ROTARY 

CHART 



A Marvel of Amusement and Instruction. 
A World of Letters and Figures for 
the LITTLE FOLKS. 

The chikl that likes to see Wheels go Round 
never tires of this Chart. 

It trains the Eye, educates the Hand, develops 
Reasoning Power in the child and 
tends to Carefulness and 
Exactness. 



By its Use the Child is Taught 
to Think for Himself. 



Henry Ward Hcechcr said in one of his 
addresM's. • No Man or Woman ever be- 
came great unless they learned to think 
tor themselves while young." All our 
great in vcntions are the res-ult of trained 
rhougiit. which is never acquired in 
advanced years. 

This little device learns the child to 
occupy his mind on a given sul)ject. To 
revolveideasin his mind. To reason. To 
exercise the power of thought. To medi- 
tate. Start the child to thinking and it 
will l)e a thinker. 

Never has a device been so universallv 
endorsed by Ministers. Principals of City 
Schools. Primary and Kindergarten 
Teachers. Feathers, Mothers and Children 
as the AMERICAN ROTARY CHART. 
And why not y It helps the Mother to 
entertain the little restless ones. It aids 
the Child to master with ease the most 
frying problems of their youthful school 
days. It is a useful toy that never gets 
old. It is a game that never gets monot- 
onous or tiresome. It is a marvel of in- 
formation, especially to the young. 

No home with Children Is complete 
without this Chart as innumerable In- 
structive games can be played and 
puzzles worked by the Young People. 
No Kindergarten or Primary School is 
complete without it for it enables the 
Teacher to change from one method to 
another, to suit the pupil who may grasp 
one method more readily than another, 
besides it presents the methods in a 
novel and attractive way which results 
in interesting the Child when the com- 
mon methods would fail entirely. Any 
Child can use it. Its games are new and 
most interesting for Church Socials. It 
is 8x8 inches by i inch thick, and con- 
tains 8 revolving disks; 8 alphabets com- 
plete: 8 sets of figures and many useful 
characters. 

By combining the Phonetic Word 
and" Object Methods, any word may be 
readily buiit up before the eyes of the 
pupil "and they are thus taught to form 
and pronounce the word correctly. It is 
also a reckoner by which little Children 
may be correctly started in the use of 
figures, taught to reason correctly, and 
to Add, Subtract. Multiply and Divide 
with ease at the age of 4 or .5. 

This wonderful little device has only 
to be seen to be fully appreciated. Price 
SI. 00. prepaid to any part of the r. S. 

Active Agents wanted in every town. 
Special price made to actively engaged 
Primary and Kindergarten Teachers 
where we have no local agents. 



AMERICAN 
ROTARY CHART CO. 

HOLDREGE, NEBRASKA. 



FEB 171902 



ICOP'V OtL. lUCfti. ^l'- 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




I 



I 



000 933 256 » 



FEB. 21 1902 



1 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




000 933 256 P 



